Worksheet 6-7 Flashcards
used on animals so that practical medicine could acquire scientific results
comparative studies
The knowledge of the structure of an organism is prerequisite to an understanding of its:
phylogeny
behavior
relationship with the environment
demonstrates the basic similarities in developmental events and processes among different vertebrates
frog
the direction near or toward the back
dorsal
the direction near or towards the belly
ventral
direction near or toward the sides
lateral
right side lateral direction
dextral
left side lateral direction
sinistral
the direction near or toward the middle
median
the direction near or toward the front end
anterior
the direction near or toward the hind end
posterior
the direction of the axis from the head to the tail
longitudinal
the direction across the long axis
transverse
the part referring to the tail
caudal
the part referring to the head
cranial/cephalic
– the part referring to the area related to the chest
pectoral
the part referring to the area related to the hip region
pelvic
the part near the main mass of the body or near a point of reference
proximal
the part away from the main mass of the body
distal
the part near the surface of the body or organ
peripheral
the part near or at the middle of the body organ
central
the part on the outer surface of the body of organ
superficial
the inner or below the surface of the body or organ
deep
the part referring to the direction above
superior
the part referring to the direction below
inferior
this term can also refer to the anterior part in frogs
cranial
the term can also refer to the anterior part in humans
ventral
the term can also refer to the posterior part in humans
dorsal
this term can also refer to the posterior part in frogs
caudal
pierced to destroy the central nervous system of a frog
brain and spinal cord
what side of the frog is up when the frog is paralyzed
dorsal
method that is designed to destroy the brain by introducing a pithing needle to the groove and directly applying it forward then downward
single pithing
method in which both the brain and spinal cord are destroyed, after pithing in the brain, the needle is inserted into the vertebral canal and directing it downward until it has touched the end of the canal
double pithing
characterized by the presence of dark skin pigmentation concentrated near the angles of the lower jaw
male frog
characteristics of male frog (thumb/nuptial pads)
enlarged (or swollen)
characteristics of male frog (size)
smaller than female
characteristics of male frog (vocal sacs)
has vocal sacs
has pigments that are diffused on the ventral side of the frog, thus no distinct dark pigmentation
female frog
characteristic of female frog in terms of thumb pads
no enlargement
characteristic of female frog in terms of size and abdomen size
bigger than male and has a bigger abdomen
composed of the head and the trunk
axial region
most anterior portion of the triangular head
snout
– the pair of slit-like openings immediately postero-dorsal to the snout
nostril/external nares
other term for nostril
external nares
Continuous with the internal nares/choanae within the mouth
external nares/nostril
it is the large posterior opening that extends posterolaterally up to the base of the head
mouth
Bordered dorsally and ventrally by immovable dorsal and ventral folds
mouth
located posterior to the nostrils and protrude on the dorso-lateral sides of the head
eyes
eyes is composed of three eyelids
upper eyelid
lower eyelid
third eyelid (nictitating membrane)
borders the dorsal side of the eyes and is usually thicker than the lower eyelid, almost immovable
upper eyelid
borders the ventral side of the eyes and is thinner but more movable than the upper eyelid
lower eyelid
continuous with the inner fold of the lower eyelid and is thin and transparent
third eyelid or nictitating membrane
keeps the eye moist and allow the frog to see underwater
nictitating membrane
small lighter-colored circular spot at the anterior level of the eye along the median dorsal line.
brow spot
May be indistinctive due to the presence of numerous pigments in the skin
brow spot
comprises a ciliated columnar epithelial lining, which has the mucous glands and these glands secrete mucus which aids in food lubrication.
buccal cavity
it is an oval-shaped membrane behind each eye which serves as a covering of the eardrum and is continuous to the buccal cavity
tympanic membrane
which part of the head is larger in males and smaller in females
tympanic membrane
demarcation line at the dorsal side which is a reference point that divides the body symmetrically
mid-dorsal line
it is a distinct dorsal elevation located at about the middle of the trunk and corresponds to the articulation of the ilium of the pelvic girdle and transverse processes of sacral vertebrae
hump
common terminal opening of the digestive tract and the urogenital system
cloacal opening
Situated at the median and posterior end of trunk
cloacal opening
other term for cloacal opening
vent
composed of the forelimbs and hindlimbs
appendicular
these are the appendages located at the anterior side of the body
forelimbs
Shorter in size compared to the hindlimbs and are used to raise or support the body when the frog is at rest
forelimbs
Each forelimb is made up of how many digits
4 digits and a rudimentary fifth digit
longer appendages of the frog located at the posterior side of its body
hindlimbs
Adapted for swimming and jumping
hindlimbs
Each of the limbs of the hindlimbs is composed of how many digits
five digits with a rudimentary six prehallux
Distinct toes of the hindlimbs are connected together by a what
membranous extension of the skin (web)
well-developed with an elongated ankle in frogs
foot
enumerate the frog’s appendages in the forelimb
upper arm
forearm
manus
carpus
metacarpus (palm)
phalanges
enumerate the frog’s appendages in the hindlimbs
thigh
shank
pes
tarsus
metatarsus
phalanges
axis that runs from head to tail
longitudinal/anterioposterior axis
runs from the dorsal to ventral
sagittal/dorsoventral axis
runs from right to left
transverse/mediolateral axis
dorsal/ventral plane
frontal plane
caudal/cranial and anterior/posterior
transverse plane
left/right plane
sagittal plane
A vertical cut that is off-center that separates the left of the specimen from the right in unequal portions
parasagittal plane
name the external parts of the frog in dorsal position
grade your score accordingly
name the external parts of the frog in ventral position
grade your score accordingly
name the different planes in the frog’s body
grade yourself accordingly
answer the external structures of the frog (figure 6.1)
grade youself accordingly
supporting framework that can either be an exoskeleton or an endoskeleton
skeleton
have an exoskeleton
invertebrates
consist of dead, non-cellular secretion
exoskeleton
have both types: exoskeleton and endoskeleton
vertebrates
is an internal supporting system of hardened, rigid, segmented, and entirely cellular bones
endoskeleton
Consist of bones and cartilages
endoskeleton
Conveniently divided into axial and appendicular skeleton
endoskeleton
composite structure of the following: skull upper lower jaws, hyoid apparatus, vertebral column, sternum
axial skeleton
part of the skull that is t-shaped box with the legs of t extending posteriorly from the nasal region to the auditory region and the auditory capsules from the head to toe
neocranium (braincase)
neocranium is composed of five bones
sphenetmoid
pair of prootic bones
pair of exoccipitals
form the braincase in the orbital and preorbital regions, contributes to the medial and posterior walls of the nasal capsule
sphenetmoid
Its posterior limit lies at the level of optic foramen
sphenetmoid
Has a large dorsal fenestra that is covered to varying degrees by dermal investing bones
sphenethmoid
lie posterior to the sphenethmoid, their posterior margin forms the posterior edge of the optic foramen
prootic bones
Postero-lateral ossification of the prootic gives rise to what
auditory capsules
The ossified portions of the prootic are united medially and posteriorly and are fused indistinguishably with the what
exoccipitals
ossified portions of the prootic are united with the exoccipitals to form a massive element that houses what
posterior end of brain and posterior organs
they surround the foramen magnum (a large median opening at the posterior end of the skull leading anteriorly into the cranial cavity) and form the occipital condyles
exoccipital
a large median opening at the posterior end of the skull leading anteriorly into the cranial cavity)
foramen magnum
consist of the paired nasals and frontoparietal at the dorsal side of the skull, a squamosal bone that invest the lateral part of the suspensorium, and a parasphenoid and paired pterygoids which are invariably present ventrally
dermal investing bones
dermal investing bones composed of
squamosal bone
frontoparietal
parasphenoid
pterygoids
vomers
palatines
dermal investing bones that may be reduced or absent
vomers/palatines
paired and lie anterior to the ossified portion of the sphenethmoid, they provide a dermal roof to the nasal capsule
nasal bones
long distinct bones that extend from the posterior end of the sphenethmoid to the posterior region of the skull
fronto-parietals
Represent the fusion of the frontal and parietal elements
frontoparietals
they form part of the palate and floor of the nasal capsules and are usually associated with the premaxillae and maxillae anteriorly and sphenethmoid posteriorly
vomer
Usually bear vomerine teeth
vomer
invest the braincase ventrally and is present in all anurans
parasphenoid
Bone is t-shaped, thus, the posterolateral alae (wings) cover the auditory capsules laterally
parasphenoid
extends from the prootic region forward to terminate at the anterior margin of the orbital region (parasphenoid)
anterior ramus (cultiform process)
paired transverse, slender bones, that originate from the tips of the parasphenoid to the maxillae
palatines
Braces the upper jaw against the neurocranium
palatines
tri-radiate bone element, thus, basically an inverted Y-shape in the upper jaw
pterygoid
Anterior leg of the Y articulates with the maxilla
pterygoid
Posterior two arms articulate laterally with the squamosal and medially with the prootic
pterygoid
paired hammer-shaped bones that invest the quadrates laterally and articulate medially with prootics
squamosal
name the bones on the ventral side of the skull
grade yourself accordingly
supporting skeletal structure (2)
hyoid apparatus and sternum
found in the buccal cavity, supports the voice box (larynx)
hyoid apparatus
supports visceral organs located within the thoracic cavity e.g. lungs, esophagus, trachea, heart
sternum
composed of girdles and limbs
appendicular skeleton
girdles in the appendicular skeleton
pectoral
pelvic girdles
limbs in appendicular skeleton
forelimbs
hindlimbs
the frog contains visceral skeleton which are the
upper and lower jaw
hyoid apparatus
cartilages that support the ventral wall of larynx
these visceral skeletons are endoskeletal structures derived from the gill arches of the developing frog
upper and lower jaw
hyoid apparatus
cartilages that support the ventral wall of larynx
composed of three pair of bones: premaxillae, maxillae, and quadratojugals
upper jaw
made up of three elements: mento-meckelian, dentary, and Angulo splenial
lower jaw
lower jaw is made up of three elements
mento-meckelian
dentary
angulo-splenial
located anteromedially and syndesmotically united with another medially and with the maxillae laterally
premaxillae
abuts the maxilla laterally
premaxillae
pair of teeth-bearing bones posterior to the premaxillae and forms the largest and middle segment of the upper jaw
maxilla
vertical component of this bone forms the lateral wall of the nasal capsule anterior to the orbit
maxilla
bone completes the upper jaw posteriorly
quadratojugal
forms anteromedially in Meckel’s cartilage and bears a sysdesmotic connection with one another medially
mento-meckelian
longer and invest Meckel’s cartilage anterolaterally
dentary
most posterior bone of the lower jaw but ventral to the dentary
angulo-splenial
name all the bones in the lower jaw
grade yorself accordingly
hyoid apparatus is composed of the following (5)
Anterior cornua
Alary process
Body of the hyoi
Thyroid process
Posterior cornua
lies in the floor of the mouth and serves as the site of insertion for a variety of muscles associated with the movement of tongue and as origin of hyoglossus
hyoid
Consist of a central cartilaginous plate that has a shallow v-shape in cross-section
hyoid
flattened median portion of the hyoid
body of hyoid
paired lateral expansions on the anterior side of the body of hyoid apparatus
alary processes
anterior pair of horns extending to the prootic
anterior cornua
paired, shorter horn-like cartilage that arise from the postero-lateral border of hyoid
posterior cornua
is a pair of long, bony posteromedial processes of the hyoid plate
thyroid processes
label the parts of the hyoid apparatus
grade your score accordingly
replaces the notochord
vertebral/spinal column
how many vertebrae in the vertebral/spinal column
10 vertebrae
consist of ten vertebrae: one atlas, seven typical vertebrae, one sacral vertebra, and one urostyle
vertebral column
retain the notochord
cephalocordates
cervical vertebra which is the most anterior and the first vertebra from the head
atlas
anterior part of the in the vertebrae that lacks transverse process
atlas
Bears a pair of atlantal condyle that articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull
atlas
second to eight vertebrae
typical vertebra
Has a pair of pre- and postzygapophyses on the neural arch
typical vertebra
Pair of transverse processes that extend laterally from the pedicel
paraphyses
in these vertebrae, Invertebral foramina are formed between adjacent neural arches
typical vertebrae
– found on the middorsal part of the neural arch
neural spine
concave anteriorly and convex posteriorly
centrum
specialized vertebra from which the pelvic girdle is suspended
sacrum
Located posterior to the eighth typical vertebrae
sacrum
Bears a pair of prezygapophyses, which articulate twith postzygapophyses of the last typical vertebra
sacrum
expanded to form sacral diapophyses that articulate with the ilia of the pelvic girdle
transverse processes
tenth and terminal vertebra
urostyle
slender with a dorsal keel
urostyle
Articulates anteriorly with the sacral vertebra
urostyle
specific term for the 1st vertebra and its location
atlas, cervical
specific term for the 2nd-8th vertebra and its location
trunk vertebrae, thoracic-lumbar
specific term for the 9th vertebra and its location
sacral vertebra, sacral
specific term for the 10th vertebra and its location
urostyle, coccyx
atypical vertebrae
atlas, sacral, urostyle
lacks the transverse process
atlas
receives the post-zygapophysis of the previous vertebra
pre-zygapophysis
includes 2nd to 8th vertebrae
typical vertebrae
label the parts of the atlas
grade your score accordingly
label the parts of the typical vertebrae
grade your score accordingly
label the parts of the sacral vertebra
grade your score accordingly
concavities for articulation of sacral vertebra
urostyle
label the parts of the urostyle
grade your score accordingly
provides additional area for muscle attachment
keel or carina
what is absent in the atlas
transverse processes and prezygapophyses
what is absent in the trunk vertebrae
none
what is absent in the sacral vertebrae
postzygapophyses
what is absent in the urostyle
zygapophyses
transverse processes
functions to support the anterior (upper) limb and is not attached to the vertebral column but is embedded on the muscles of the anterior trunk region
pectoral girdle
incorporated with the pectoral girdle on the medial ventral side
sternum
commonly called as the breast bone
sternum
parts of the sternum
episternum
omosternum
mesosternum
xiphisternum
articulates with clavicle
omosternum
articulates with the coracoid
mesosternum
label the parts of the sternum
grade yourself accordingly
girdle that received portion of the forelimb
pectoral
girdle that receives portion of the hindlimb
pelvic
laterally articulates with scapula, slender, transverse bone on the antero-lateral side of the epicoracoid
clavicle
articulates with the suprascapular, the most dorsal bone of the pectoral girdle that is attached to the coracoid dorsally
scapula
broader, transverse bone on the postero-lateral side of the epicoracoid
coracoid
articulates with the coracoid bones
clavicle
located midventrally joining the left and right halves of the pectoral girdle
epicoracoid
Space between clavicle and coracoid, in a live frog a cartilage covers this
fenestra
whitish, flat cartilage attached dorsally to the scapula
suprascapular
cup-shaped depression on the posterolateral side of the pectoral girdle that serves to receive the head of the humerus
glenoid fossa
formed by the portion of clavicle, coracoid, and scapula
glenoid fossa
long, flat bone situated along the ventral midline of the body
sternum
bone shaped like inverted “Y” attached to the anterior edges of the clavicles
omosternum
round cartilage attached to the anterior end of omosternum
episternum
rod-shaped bone on the posterior ends of the coracoids
mesosternum
larger rounded cartilage, attached to the posterior end of the mesosternum
xiphisternum
Pelvic girdle/ innominate bone is made up of (4)
ilium
pubis (pubic symphysis)
ischium (ischiac symphysis)
acetabulum
concavity, receives the head of the femur
acetabulum
supports the posterior limbs and like the pectoral girdle, consists of two identical halves, one half of which is called an innominate bone
pelvic girdle
most dorsal and anterior long bone of the pelvic girdle
ilium
Anterior most end is attached to the transverse process of the sacral vertebra
ilium
Two ilia are partly fused in what side of the frontal plane
ventrally
small triangular bone immediately posterior but ventral to the ilium
pubis
Two pubes are fused medially forming the
pubic symphysis
large bone on the posterior most end of the pelvic girdle
ischium
Two ischia are fused medially forming the
ischiac sympyhsis
large, rounded depression on the lateral side of the pelvic girdle, which serves to receive the head of the femur
acetabulum
Portions of the ilium, pubis, and ischium form this
acetabulum
name and label the vertebral column and pelvic girdle in lateral view (two views)
grade youself accordingly
point of union between ilium and sacral vertebra
hump
the skeleton of these consist of a humerus in each arm, a radio-ulna in each forearm, carpals in each wrist, metacarpals in each palm, and phalanges in the fingers
forelimb
most proximal bone of the forelimb
humerus
Proximal end has a convex head, which fits into the concavity of the glenoid fossa of the pectoral girdle
humerus
humerus is found on the inner or medial side of this bone is a distinct crest or elevation known as
deltoid ridge
which serves as attachment for muscle
deltoid ridge
fused bone (inner radius and outer ulna), immediately distal to the humerus; the point of union is marked by a longitudinal groove
radio-ulna
bones of the wrist consisting of two rows of six rounded bones
carpals
consist of four slender bones to which the phalanges are attached
metacarpals
consist of a femur in each thigh, a tibiofibular in each leg, tarsal in each ankle, metatarsals in each foot, and phalanges in toes
hindlimb
most proximal bone of the hindlimb, the longest bone of the body; its head fits into the acetabulum of the pelvic girdle
femur
fused-bone of the shank or leg immediately distal to the femur; the point of union is marked by longitudinal groove
tibiofibula
bones of the ankle consisting of two rows of bones posterior to the tibiofibula:
tarsals
more curved on the medial side that is immediately distal to the tibia
tibiale or astragalus
straighter that immediately distal to the fibula
fibulare/calcaneum
Proximal row consist of distinctly separated bones (hindlimb)
fibulare/tibiale
consist of five long bones of the sole to which the digits or phalanges are attached
metatarsals
rudimentary bone that supports the prehallux
calcar
number of bone in the humerus and femur
1
number of bone in the radi-ulna and tibio-fibula
1
number of bone in the carpals
2 rows of 6
number of bone in the tarsals
2 rows of 5
number of bone in the metacarpals
4
of bone in the metatarsals
5
digital formula for phalanges in the forelim
2 2 3 3
digital formula for phalanges in the hindlimb
2 2 3 4 3
label the parts of the bones of the hand
grade yourself accordingly
label the parts of the bones of the foot
grade youself accordingly
