Nervous and Endocrine System Flashcards
are irritable, and they tend to respond to all changes happening in their internal and external environment
animals
may be brought by changes in terms of the amount of food, water, oxygen, and even waste materials
internal stimuli
Example of external stimuli:
temperature
pH
moisture
light
gravity
pressure
ability to respond to changes occurring within the animal’s body and its external environment
irritability
three principal components of irritability:
reception of stimulus
conduction of signal
response by an effector
three distinct functions of irritability
sensory
integrative
motor
function of irritability that detects changes in internal and external environment
sensory
function that brings sensory information together and make decisions that are acted upon by using motor functions
integrative
functions to responds to stimuli by initiating muscular contraction or glandular secretion
motor
Composed of hydra, jellyfish, sea anemones
cnidarians
have the simplest nervous system organization with a nerve net
cnidarians
cnidarians have this network of nerve cells that are connected to the receptors in the epidermis
protoneurons
which directions does the single impulse travels producing a generalized response or contraction in cnidarians
all direction
Composed of sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers
echinoderms
have a ring-like nervous system, no brain
echinoderms
where the nervous system of echinoderms has ring around with five nerves radiating outward
esophagus
have a linear/bilateral/ladderlike nervous system
flatworms
Have a distinct ganglia or “brain” connected to two main nerve trunks/cords that run posteriorly and laterally to various body parts of the body
flatworms
has a centralized nervous system and has two ventral nerve cords, with a pair of ganglia, afferent and efferent neurons in each body segment
annelids
Centralized nervous system but have larger ganglia and developed sense organs
arthropods
Centralized nervous system with a embryonically with a
single, hollow, dorsal nerve cord
vertebrates
animals that exhibit cephalization
vertebrates
With anteriorly located brain connected to spinal cord and nerves (cranial and spinal nerves)
vertebrates
also called nerve cells and serve as the functional unit of the nervous system
neurons
Specialized in impulse conduction
neurons
neurons has two parts
cell body and processes
part of the neuron that contains the nucleus of the cell
cell body
also called soma or perikaryon
cell body
processes of neurons
dendrites
axons
greek word dendron means
tree
greek work axon means
axle
highly branched which carry nerve signals, or impulses towards cell body
dendrites
long fiber (meters in length in largest mammals) which typically carries signals away from the cell body
axon
- Axon in complex invertebrates as it is usually covered by this
myelin sheath
classification of neurons according to function:
sensory/afferent
motor/efferent
interneurons/association
afferent came from the Latin prefix affero means “going toward”
sensory/afferent neurons
Receive stimuli from external and internal environment
sensory/afferent neurons
Transmit impulses from receptors which convert environmental stimuli to impulses and carry into the brain or spinal cord (CNS)
sensory/afferent neurons
from the Latin prefix effero which means “going away from”
motor/efferent
Transmit impulses away from brain or spinal cord toward muscles and glands
motor/efferent
neither sensory nor motor connecting afferent and efferent neurons
interneurons/association
classification of neurons according to number of processes
unipolar
bipolar
multipolar
have a cell body set to one side of axon
unipolar
– with one axon and one dendrite
bipolar
with one axon and several dendrites
multipolar
also called glial cells
neuroglia
glia means
glue
Comprise several cell types located only in brain and spinal cord
neuroglia
Support and protect neurons but do not conduct impulses
neuroglia
types of neuroglia
astrocytes
oligodendrocyytes
usually star-shaped, largest, most numerous and contain many processes
astrocytes
Provide structural support for nervous tissue
astrocytes
Act as “blood-brain barrier” by means of forming tight sheath around blood vessels
astrocytes
smaller and with fewer processes than astrocytes
oligodendrocytes
small, phagocytic neuroglial cells which engulf and destroy microbes and cellular debris
microglia
Develop from monocytes
microglia
ciliated cuboidal and columnar cells that form the epithelial lining of the ventricles of brain and neural tube
ependymal cells
Function in the circulation of CSF (cerebrospinal fluid
ependymal cells
form the myelin sheath and neurolemma that envelop nerve fibers outside the brain and spinal cord
schwann cells
Chemical-electrical message of nerves
nerve impulse
nerve impulses follow this principle which means if a threshold is reached action potential is sure to occur, if not no action potential would be generated
all-or-none principle
the characteristic of the membrane of a nerve cell which tends to diffuse outward the membrane
selectively permeable to K+
the outer membrane of a nerve cel
+ charegd
the inner membrane of a nerve cell
negatively charged
typical value of the resting membrane potential
-70mV
maintains the resting membrane potential
Na+/K+ pump
Rapid depolarization of a nerve membrane
action potential
as the rapid depolarization of a nerve membrane happens, the outside of the membrane becomes this compared to the inside
highly negative
action potential is associated with the increase of this causing its rapid influx
permeability of Na+ ions
Functional junction between two neurons or between a neuron and effector organ
synapses
two kind of synapses
electrical
chemical
type of synapse where action potential travels across a narrow gap junction to another and show no time lag and are important in escape reactions
electrical synapse
synapse where there is an involvement of the presence of neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine
chemical
neurotransmitter like this transmit impulses
acetylcholine
neurons in chemical synapse has two phase
presynaptic
post synaptic
neurons conducting impulses toward chemical synapses
presynaptic
neurons carrying impulses away
post synaptic
acts as the “main switchboard” which controls and coordinates the activities of the entire nervous system
central nervous system
site of information of processing
CNS
consist of brain and spinal cord
CNS
carries all messages between central nervous system and the rest of the body
Peripheral nervous system
Consist of nerves that bring messages to and from the brain
PNS
how many cranial nerves are there
12 pairs
how many spinal nerves are there
31 pairs
contain sensory and motor portions
nerves
two subdivisions of PNS
Somatic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
includes sensory neurons that convey information from cutaneous and special sense receptors in the head, body wall, and limbs to the CNS
SNS
contain motor neurons that conduct impulses from CNS to the skeletal muscles
SNS
controls voluntary body activities
SNS
includes sensory neurons that convey information from receptors in the viscera to the CNS
ANS
includes motor neurons that conduct impulses from CNS to effectors such as smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands
ANS
controls involuntary body activities
ANS
two branches of motor portion of ANS
sympathetic nervous system
parasympathetic nervous system
also called the thoracolumbar division of motor portion of ANS
sympathetic nervous system
in which the nerve cell bodies are located in the thoracic and upper lumbar areas of the spinal cord
sympathetic nervous system
responds to body’s needs during increased activity and emergencies
sympathetic nervous system
referred to as the “fight-or-flight” system
sympathetic nervous system
motor portion of ANS that utilize body energy
sympathetic nervous system
also called the craniosacral division
parasympthatetic nervous system
motor neurons emerge from the brain stem, others from the sacral region of the spinal cord
parasympathetic nervous system
opposes the actions of sympathetic system
Parasympathetic nervous system
active when body is at rest
parasympathetic nervous system
referred to as the “resting and digesting system”
parasympathetic nervous system
involves restoration and conservation of body energy
parasympathetic nervous system
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
dilation/constriction of pupils
sympathetic - dilates
parasympathetic - constriction
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
inhibition/stimulation of salivation
sympathetic - inhibits salivation
parasympathetic - stimulates salivation
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
constriction of blood vessel
sympathetic
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
relaxes/constrict airways
S - relaxes
P - constrict
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
accelerate/slow heartbeat
S - accelerate
P -slow
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
stimulate sweating
sympathetiic
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
inhibit/stimulate digestion
S - inhibit
P - stimulate
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
inhibit hormone and enzyme release
sympathetic
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
stimulate bile secretion
parasympathetic
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
stimulate glucose production and release by liver
parasympathetic nervous system
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
stimulate release and insulin and digestive enzymes by pancreas
parasympathetic nervous system
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
inhibits/stimulate gut motility and secretion
sympathetic - inhibit
parasympathetic - stimulate
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
stimulates the secretion of epinephrine and porepinephrine
sympathetic
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
relaxes/stimuales urinary blader contraction
s - relaxes
p - stimulates
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
stimulates orgasm
sympathetic
determine if it is the action of Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Nervous System:
stimulates penile or clitoral arousal
parasympathetic
act as neural pathways of reflexes
reflex
simple neural pathway linking a receptor and an effector
reflex
part of a reflex
receptor
afferent/sensory neuron
efferent/motor neuron
sense organ in skin, muscle, and other organs
receptor
rapid, predictable and involuntary responses to a stimuli
reflex
include all reflexes that stimulate skeletal muscles
somatic reflexes
regulate the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands
autonomic reflexes
one of the largest organs of the body and is protected by the skull
brain
covers the brain
meninges
three layers of meninge
pia mater
arachnoid
dura mater
the outermost layer of meninge; a double layered membrane
dura mater
middle layer of the meninges
arachnoid
innermost layer which is the most delicate (meninge)
pia mater
three principal division of the brain
forebrain
midbrian
hindbrain
forebrain (primary brain vesicle)
prosencephalon
midbrain (primary brain vescile)
mesencephalon
hindbrain (primary brain vesicle)
rhombencephalon
secondary brain vesicles include
telencephalon
diencephalon
mesencephalon
metencephalon
myelencephalon
final brain structure from telencephalon
cerebrum
final brain structure from diencephalon
thalamus and hypothalamus
final brain structure from mesencephalon
midbrain
final brian structure from metencephalon
pons and cerebellum
final brain structure from myelencephalon
medulla oblongata
largest part of the brain and weighs less than half a pound
telencephalon (cerebrum)
is divided into right and left hemisphere joined by a bundle of nerve fibers
telencephalon (cerebrum)
bundle of nerve fibers that joins the cerebrum
corpus callosum
entire surface is highly convoluted, containing gyri and sulci
cerebrum
elevated ridges in the cerebral hemisphere
gyri
shallow grooves in the cerebral hemisphere
sulci
outer layer which is gray in color where most of the activity of the brain happens
cerebral cortex
cerebrum is composed of four lobes:
frontal lobe
parietal lobe
temporal lobe
occipital lobe
brain’s major motor area for voluntary movements
frontal lobe
association area for higher level of thinking
frontal lobe
cerebral lobe sensory inputs from all parts of the body; bodily awarenes
parietal lobe
cerebral lobe responsible for hearing and speech understanding
temporal lobe
vision
occipital lobe
contains nerve centers for governing all sensory and motor activity
cerebrum
set of consciousness; intelligence; sensory perception of visual, olfactory, and auditory senses; coordination of body movements
cerebrum
cerebral dominance has two parts:
left and right hemisphere
intuitive talents, left handed control
right hemisphere
analytical skills and right-handed control
left hemisphere
determine if right/left hemisphere
creative ability
right
determine if right/left hemisphere
appreciation of music and art
right
determine if right/left hemisphere
perception of non-speech sounds like melodies
right
determine if right/left hemisphere
space and pattern perception
right
determine if right/left hemisphere
insight
right
determine if right/left hemisphere
imagination
right
determine if right/left hemisphere
generating mental images of sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell
right
determine if right/left hemisphere
math
left
determine if right/left hemisphere
logic
left
determine if right/left hemisphere
verbal skills
left
determine if right/left hemisphere
spoken and written language
left
determine if right/left hemisphere
scientific skills and reasoning
left
serves as the relay center that interprets and passes sensory impulses from the other parts of the brain and spinal cord to the cerebral cortex
thalamus
plays a key role in awareness through its conscious recognition of crude sensations of pain, temperature, and touch associated with pressure
thalamus
located beneath the thalamus, the smaller portion of the diencephalon
hypothalamus
one of the major regulators of homeostasis by controlling and integrating the activities of the ANS
hypothalamus
regulates visceral action
hypothalamus
visceral action include
heart rate
motility and secretions of GIT
arterial blood pressure
contraction of urinary bladder
regulate body temperature
hypothalamus
regulates behavioral (including sexual behavior) and emotional responses and is associated with feelings of fear, anger, and aggression
hypothalamus
regulates food intake through two centers:
hypothalamus
hypothalamus regulates food intake through two centers:
satiety center
feeding (hunger center)
also contain the thirst center
hypothalamus
one of the two centers that maintains waking state and sleep patterns
hypothalamus
acts as “biological clock” in setting circadian rhythm
hypothalamus
a crucial endocrine gland acting as the master of the pituitary gland
hypothalamus
master endocrine gland and its secretions is controlled by the hypothalamus
pituitary gland
plays an important role together with the pituitary gland in the regulation of virtually all aspects of growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis
hypothalamus
small portion of the brain stem connecting the pons and diencephalon
midbrain
sends sensory impulses from the spinal cord to the thalamus
midbrain
conveys motor impulses from the cerebrum to the cerebellum and spinal cord
midbrain
consist of tectum (optic lobes) containing nuclei for regulating visual and auditory reflexes
midbrain
has reflex centers concerned with head movement
midbrain
means “little brain”
cerebellum
bilobed structure lying dorsal to the medulla
cerebellum
second largest portion of the brain, largest portion of the hindbrain
cerebellum
higher center for the integration of muscular contraction, controls balance, and body position
cerebellum
means bridge
pons
rounded structure beneath the midbrain acting as a bridge connecting spinal cord with brain and links parts of the brain with one another by way of tracts
pons
functional bridge between the cerebrum and cerebellum
pons
regulates the rate and depth of breathing, helps control respiration
pons
other nuclei control functions such as chewing and salivation
pons
most posterior part of the brain which is continuous with the spinal cord
medulla oblongata
contains centers for vital visceral activities
medulla oblongata
center for visceral activities for rate and force of heartbeat
cardiac center
center for visceral activities for regulates arterial pressure
vasomotor center
center for visceral activities for breathing, swallowing, coughing, sneezing, and vomiting
respiratory center
voluntary muscle and seat of consciousness and of 5 major senses
cerebrum
relays all sensory impulses (except olfactory) to brain centers
thalamus
maintains homeostasis
hypothalamus
function in midbrain nuclei
midbrain nuclei
lobe that function in visual and auditory reflexes
optic lobes
function in posture, equilibrium, movement
cerebellum
Acts as a bridge, connects spinal cord with brain, helps control respiration
pons
function in Cardiac, vasomotor, and respiratory reflex center
medulla oblongata
continuation of medulla oblongata
spinal cord
Also acts as a “highway” conveying sensory nerve impulses from the periphery headed for the brain (sensory tracts) and motor nerve impulses from the brain to the periphery (motor tracts)
spinal cord
Beside processing reflexes, this also sums up nerve impulses that arise locally or arrive from the periphery and the brain
spinal cord
Has 31 segments in humans, each giving rise to a pair of spinal nerves which receive information from the body
spinal cord
this matter in the spinal cord contains neurons
gray matter
matter in the spinal cord that contain nerve pathways or nerve tracts
white matter
also protected by three layers of meninges
spinal cord
forms a watery cushion that nourishes and protects brain and spinal cord from injury or trauma
cerebro-spinal fluid
major solutes of CSF
glucose
proteins
sodium chloride
other electrolytes
obstruction of the drainage of CSF can cause accumulation and will cause greater pressure in brain
hydrocephalus
produces CSF found in the lateral and fourth ventricles
choroid plexus
space between arachnoid and pia mater where CSF circulates
subarachnoid space
arise from the brain
cranial nerves
12 pairs and are designated by Roman numerals from I to XII
cranial nerves
only contain sensory fibers
cranial nerves
contain only motor fibers
motor nerves
nerves containing both sensory and motor fibers
mixed nerves
Two general categories of cranial nerve function
afferent or sensory
efferent or motor
efferent or motor is divided into
somatic
parasympathetic
innervates skeletal muscles in head and neck
somatic motor
innervate glands, smooth muscle, and cardiac muscle
parasympathetic autonomic
arise along the spinal cord from the union of dorsal sensory roots and ventral motor roots
spinal nerve
all are mixed nerves
spinal nerves
Classified by region of the vertebral column from which they come out
spinal nerve
(C) nerve
cervical nerve
(T) nerve
thoracic nerve
(L) nerve
lumbar nerve
(S) nerve
sacral
(Cx)
coccygeal nerve
Numbered according to their order within that region (31 pairs of spinal nerves)
spinal nerve
cervical nerves start and end
C1-C8
thoracic nerves start and end
T1-T12
lumbar nerve start and end
L1-L5
sacral nerve start and end
S1-S5
coccygeal nerve
Cx
enumerate the cranial nerves from I to XII
olfactory
optic
occulomotor
trochlear
trigeminal
abduscens
facial
vestibulocochlear
glossopharyngeal
vagus
accessory
hypoglossal
what type of nerve is:
olfactory
sensory
what type of nerve is:
optic
sensory
what type of nerve is:
occulomotor
mixed (prim. motor)
what type of nerve is:
trochlear
mixed (prim. motor)
what type of nerve is:
trigeminal
mixed
what type of nerve is:
abduscens
mixed (prim. motor)
what type of nerve is:
facial
mixed
what type of nerve is:
vestibulocochlear
sensory
what type of nerve is:
glossopharyngeal
mixed
what type of nerve is:
vagus
mixed
what type of nerve is:
acessory
mixed (prim. motor)
what type of nerve is:
hypoglossal
mixed (prim. motor)
cranial nerve that function in smell
olfactory
cranial nerve that function in vision
optic
cranial nerve that function in
(s): transmitting information from receptors in muscles
(m): movement of eyelid and eyeball, contract pupils, alter lens shape for near and far vision
oculomotor
cranial nerve that function in
(s): transmit information from receptor in muscles
(m): movement of eyeball
trochlear
cranial nerve that function in
(s): convey sensations for touch, pain, and temperature from structures innervated
(m): chewing
trigeminal
cranial nerve that function in
(s) transmit information from receptor in muscle (2)
(m) movement of eyeball (2)
abduscens
cranial nerve that function in
(s): transmit information from taste
(M): facial expression and secretion of saliva nad tear
facial
cranial nerve that function in
(s): convey impulses associated with hearing
vestibulocochlear
cranial nerve that function in
(s) taste and regulation of bp
(m): swallowing and secretion of saliva
glossopharyngeal
cranial nerve that function in
(s): transmit information from receptors in thorax and abdomen
(m): smooth muscle contraction and relaxation; secretion of digestive fluids
vagus
cranial nerve that function in
(s) muscle sense
(m) innervates neck skeletal muscles’ swallowing; movement of head
accessory
cranial nerve that function in
(s) muscle sense
(m) movement of tongue during speech and swallowing
hypoglossal
consist of system of ductless glands that secrete “hormones” into the bloodstream of animals with generally identifiable target tissues
endocrine system
Participates in regulating hormones essential for body activities
endocrine system
are organic molecules that serve as regulators and coordinators of biological functions of the animals within which they are synthesized
hormones
Their presence may affect their growth, appearance, metabolism, reproduction, and behaviors
hormones
function of endocrine system
Produce and secrete hormones for chemical regulation
secrete and discharge their products outside the body or into the digestive tract through ducts
exocrine glands
Sweat glands, sebaceous, salivary glands, mammary glands, ceruminous glands
exocrine glands
secrete and release their products inside the body directly into the blood stream
endocrine gland
known as ductless gland
endocrine gland
produces hormones
endocrine gland
chemical substances that are released into the bloodstream in small amounts and are transported to specific target cells for bodily processes
hormones
type of hormone
peptide hormone
steroid hormone
may be made up of amino acids that are modified (e.g. thyroxine) or of few to several hundreds known as polypeptide (e.g. insulin)
peptide hormones
Incapable of passing directly to cell membrane and are required to bind to receptors
peptide hormones
hormone soluble in water
peptide hormones
made from cholesterol, are lipids which can pass directly through the lipid bilayer of cell membrane
steroid hormone
water insoluble
steroid hormones
examples of estrogen and testosterone
steroid hormone
nerve cell secretions which are directly discharged in the circulation
neurosecretions or neuropeptides
Essential in insect metamorphosis and in reproduction, growth, and regeneration of invertebrates
neurosecretions or neuropeptides
kind of neuropeptides (7)
molting hormone
juvenile hormone
growth stimulating hormone
gonadotropin
osmoregulatory hormone
hyperglycemic hormone
bursicon
also known as ecdysone
molting hormone
molting hormone is controlled by a brain hormone known as
ecdysiotropin or prothoracicotropic hormine
Produced by prothoracic gland
molting hormone
Promotes development of adult structures
molting hormone
Present among insects and crustaceans
molting hormone
produced by corpora allata
juvenile hormone
Retains juvenile characteristics such as in annelids and insects
juvenile hormone
stimulates budding, regeneration, and growth such as in hydra
growth promoting hormone
stimulates development of eggs, proliferation of spermatogonia and development of secondary sexual characteristics such as in octopus and squids (cephalopods)
gonadotropin
for osmoregulation such as in annelids
osmoregulatory hormone
maintains a high concentration of blood glucose
hyperglycemic hormone
for the development of epidermis such as tanning or hardening and darkening of chitinous outer cuticle layer such as insects
bursicon
region of the brain but acts as the “master” of the anterior pituitary gland
hypothalamus
produces and secretes six releasing and inhibiting hormones acting on different cells of anterior pituitary gland
hypothalamus
considered as the master endocrine gland
pituitary gland
also known as hypophysis
pituitary gland
is connected to the hypothalamus by a stalk (infundibulum) and posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
putuitary gland
in other vertebrates, it has the intermediate lobe (pars intermedia)
pituitary gland
lobe of the pituitary gland secretes 6 types of hormones
anterior lobe
anterior lobe secreting 4 tropic hormones:
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
luteinizing hormone (LH)
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
anterior lobe secreting 2 protein
prolactin (PRL)
growth hormone (GH)
posterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes two hormones
antidiuretic (ADH)
oxytocin
promotes water reabsorption from the kidney
antidiuretic (ADH)
promotes smooth muscle contraction and movement of milk into secretory ducts
oxytocin
located in the neck of all vertebrates
thyroid gland
In most animals, this contain high concentration of iodine
thyroid gland
– combines with amino acid tyrosine to produce two thyroid hormones:
iodine
two thyroid hormones
thyroxine
triiodothyronine
control growth, metabolism, and development of animals
thyroid hormones
in them, thyroid hormones control oxygen consumption and heat production thus provide
bird and mammals
another thyroid hormone, promotes deposition of calcium in bones
calcitonin (CT)
pea-sized glands embedded in the posterior side of the thyroid
parathyroid gland
secrete parathormone
parathyroid gland
regulates the level of calcium and phosphate ions in the blood stream maintaining homeostasis
parathormone
If the calcium level in the bloodstream becomes too low, this secretes its secretion of PTH to stimulate osteoclast to release calcium ions into the blood
parathyroid gland
bone-destroying cells
osteoclasts
also lowers the rate of calcium excretion by the kidney and enhances absorption of calcium by the intestine
Parathormone
When the calcium level on the blood becomes too high, the following are secreted to lower down calcium ions in the bloodstream:
less PTH secretion
calcitonin is secreted
triangular gland that lies on top of each kidney
adrenal gland
two parts of adrenal gland
adrenal cortex
adrenal medulla
outer yellowish portion of the adrenal gland
adrenal cortex
inner, reddish portion of the adrenal gland
adrenal medulla
secretes two type of hormones: glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
adrenal cortex
play a role in maintaining certain level of ions within the body fluids
mineralcorticoids
regulates glucose metabolism
glucocorticoids
secretes two major types of hormones: adrenaline, noradrenaline
adrenal medulla
also known as epinephrine
adrenaline
also known as norepinephrine
noradrenaline
Responsible for “fight and flight” response as regulated by the signals being send by the hypothalamus
noradrenaline
situated along the side of the stomach, act as both endocrine and exocrine gland
pancreas
As an exocrine gland, it secretes enzymes that facilitate digestion
pancreas
the endocrine portion of the pancreas is also known as this
islets of langerhans
Secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon which regulates glucose in the blood stream
islets of langerhans
lowers blood glucose level by acting on the liver to convert glucose to glycogen
insulin
increases glucose in the bloodstream by triggering the liver to convert the stored sugar glycogen into glucose
glucagon
pine cone-shaped gland embedded within the brain
pineal gland
Secretes the hormone melatonin
pineal gland
functions in the development of gonads, reproductive cycle, and regulates body rhythms such as sleep/wake cycles
melatonin
consist of ovaries (females) and testes
gonads
secrete testosterone which stimulates spermatogenesis, promotes the development of male secondary characteristics
testes
secrete hormones that regulate female reproductive functions such as estrogen and progesterone
ovaries
located near the heart, specifically behind the sternum
thymus
secretes the hormone thymosin that is essential for normal development of immune system
thymus
Increases water reabsorption in mammals; for water uptake across amphibian skin
vasopressin (anti-diuretic hormone)
Increases permeability of skin of tetrapods to water and for water reabsorption
vasotocin
Decreases water reabsorption by kidney in lungfish, reptiles, and amphibians
mesotocin
Stimulates uterine contraction during birth in mammals and oviducal contraction in reptiles
oxytocin
Ejects milk in mammals
mammary gland
Synthesizes protein and promotes growth
growth hormone or somatotrophin
Enhances mammary gland development and milk production in mammals
prolactin
Secretes thyroid hormones
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Stimulate egg formation and estrogen production
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Produce sperm
FSH
Promotes ovulation and synthesis of estrogen and progesterone (by developing corpus luteum)
LH
Synthesis of testosterone
LH
Stimulates the adrenal gland to release and secrete steroid hormones
adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Stimulates dispersion of melanin granules for dark color of the skin among fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds
melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
thyroid hormones that increase metabolic rate, promote normal growth, and nerve development; causes metamorphosis in amphibians
throxine and trioodothyronine
Decreases blood calcium by stimulating calcium uptake by bone
calcitonin
Stimulates calcium release into blood
parathyroid hormone
Stimulates calcium uptake into blood
parathyroid hormone
Increases calcium reabsorption; formation of calcitriol (active form of Vit. D)
parathyroid hormone
Promotes protein breakdown and conversion to glucose
glucocorticoids
Promotes sodium reabsorption; controls salt-water balance
aldosterone
Promote changes in the body that occur during puberty
androgens
Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar
epinephrine
Increases rate of breathing and dilates airways
epinephrine
Promotes constriction or dilation of blood vessel diameter
norepinephrine
Lowers blood glucose level by promoting utilization of blood cells
insulin (beta cells)
Raises blood glucose level
glucagon (alpha cells)
Develops female secondary characteristics
estrogen (estradiol)
Prepares for pregnancy, stimulates pregnancy
progesterone
Develops male secondary characteristics; produces sperm
testosterone
Differentiation of lymphocytes
thymosin
Stimulates HCl secretion and increase gastric motility
gastrin
Stimulates release of
pancreatic fluid that
neutralizes HCl; aids in digestion of fats by
inhibiting gastric
motility; speeds up bile production
secretin
Stimulates production of RBCs
erythropoietin
inhibits secretion of LHRH and FSHRH
melatonin
promote sleep
melatonin
Stimulates synthesis of progesterone
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Stimulates development of mammary glands
pacental lactogen
