Worksheet 12-15 Flashcards by Franchez Cassandra Escander

has three functions: sensory, integrative, motor

nervous system

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function of NS that senses changes (stimuli) within and outside the body

sensory

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function of NS that analyzes the sensory information, store some aspects, and make decisions

integrative

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function of NS that is responsible for responding to stimuli by initiating muscular contractions or glandular secretions

motor

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function in the transmission of impulses and coordination of responses in a frog

nervous system

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composed of the brain and the spinal cord

central nervous system

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encased in vertebra, connect to parts of the body by spinal nerves

spinal cord

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composed of spinal and cranial nerves

peripheral nervous system

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connected from the brain to the parts of head and abdomen

cranial nerves

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connects the spinal cord to parts of the body

spinal nerves

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how many cranial nerves are there

10 pairs

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how many pairs of spinal nerves are there

10 pairs

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organs that perceive and transmit environmental changes to the CNS

sense organs

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sense organ for sense of touch

skin

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sense organ for sense of sight

eyes

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sense organ for sense of smell

nose

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sense organ for sense of hearing and equilibrium

ears

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sense organ for sense of taste

tongue

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function as the orchestrating and regulating centers of the nervous system, from anterior towards posterior:

central nervous system

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enumerate parts of the brain from anterior towards posterior

Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon

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consist of paired olfactory lobes and cerebral hemispheres

telencephalon

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each cerebral hemisphere contains a cavity known as this

lateral ventricles

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Also known as the first and second ventricle

lateral ventricles

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centers for association memory

cerebral hemisphere

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located between the optic lobes and posterior to the cerebral hemispheres

diencephalon

Functions in balance, vision, and spontaneous movement

diencephalon

part of the diencephalon where there is a small epiphysis of the pineal gland

dorsal part

part of the diencephalon where there is a hypophysis of the pituitary gland

ventral part

formed by the crossing fibers of the optic nerves

optic chiasma

located posteriorly to the optic chiasma

infundibulum

the midbrain, the center for visual coordination

mesencephalon

part of the mesencephalon where there are rounded optic lobes with optic ventricle within

dorsal part

third and fourth ventricle along with the ventricles of the mesencephalon make up the

Aqueduct of Sylvius

Structurally a dorsal transverse fold ridge

metencephalon

funnctions in equilibrium and coordinated movements

metencephalon

where the medulla oblongata is located in this brain part

myelencephalon

Narrows toward the posterior end, forming the spinal cord

myelencephalon

continuation of the brain and is located in the trunk region

spinal cord

 Short and contained in the neural canal of the vertebral column

spinal cord

label the frog brain (dorsal, ventral, longitudinal section)

grade yourself accordingly

label the frog brain (real photo)

grade yourself accordingly

consist the structures of the nervous system outside the CNS

peripheral nervous syste

Mainly made up of nerves that extend from the brain and the spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

connect the CNS to the receptors and effectors of the body

peripheral nerves

correction of sympathetic trunk to the PNS

ramus communicans

consist of two slender delicate thread-like nerve cords (i.e. sympathetic trunk)

sympathetic nervous system

run beneath the vertebral column, one on either side of the dorsal aorta

sympathetic trunk

Has a series of 10 sympathetic ganglia

sympathetic trunk

composed of ten pairs in the brain

cranial nerves

arises from the anterior end of the olfactory lobe and innervates the cells of the olfactory sac

olfactory nerve

what type of nerve is I nerve

sensory

nerve fibers arise from the retina of the eye

optic nerve

these fibers generally cross or decussate out of the what

optic chiasma

cranial nerve II is purely

sensory

two optic nerves enter this of the opposite side

optic thalamus

Terminates in the thalamencephalon

optic thalamus

small nerve arising from the ventral side of the midbrain (crura-cerebri)

occulomotor nerve

divides into branches which supply the anterior, superior, and inferior recti muscles and inferior oblique muscle of the eyebal

occulomotor nerve

cranial nerve III is what

exclusively motor

two longitudinal bands of nerve fibers in the contracted region of the brain

crura-cerebri

small nerve arising from the dorsal side of the brain between the optic lobes and cerebellum and going to the superior oblique muscle of the eyeball

trochlear or pathetic nerve

cranial nerve IV is what

motor

largest of the cranial nerves arising from the sides of the anterior end of the medulla oblongata

trigeminal nerve

before the trigeminal nerve emerges from the skull it bears this

gasserian ganglion

cranial nerve V is what

mixed nerve

three branches of trigeminal nerve

ophthalmic superficialis madibular maxillary

nerves that passes along the dorsal border of the orbit and goes to the skin of the snout

ophthalmic superficialis

what type of nerve is ophthalmic superficialis

somatic sensory

two branches of the trigeminal nerve that arise from a common stem and separate

mandibular and maxillary

goes to the muscles of the lower jaw

mandibular

what type of nerve is mandibular

visceral motor nerve

what type of nerve is maxillary

somatic sensory

forms two branches going to the skin of the upper jaw and upper lip

maxillary nerve

arises from the ventral side of the medulla oblongata and enters the orbit and goes to the posterior rectus muscle of the eyeball

abducens nerve

what type of nerve is cranial VI

motor nerve

arises from the antero-lateral side of medulla oblongata close behind the fifth

facial nerve

what type of nerve is cranial VII

mixed nerve

Mixed nerve having both visceral sensory and visceral motor fibers

facial nerve

facial nerve is divided into two branches:

palatine hyomandibular

branch of facial nerve that is going to the roof of the buccal cavity

palatine

branch of the facial nerve that is going to the tongue and muscles of the lower jaw

hyomandibular

somatic sensory arising from the medulla oblongata behind the seventh and goes to internal ear

auditory nerve

mixed nerve arising from the lateral side of medulla and goes to the tongue, hyoid, and pharynx

glossopharyngeal

mixed nerve arising from the lateral side of the medulla and goes as visceral branch to the larynx (laryngeal), esophagus and stomach (gastric), heart (cardiac), and lungs (pulmonary)

vagus or pneumogastric

ten pairs of nerves of the frog arising from the spinal cord

spinal nerves

Arises by a dorsal and ventral root

spinal nerve

dorsal root of the spinal nerves has these

dorsal ganglion

white calcareous body that surrounds the dorsal ganglion

gland of swammerdam

innervates the tongue and hyoid muscles

first spinal nerve

biggest, receives branches from the first spinal nerve

second spinal nerve

innervates the shoulder and forelimbs

third spinal nerve

Sends a branch to the second nerve and branch off to the external oblique, transversus and skin

third spinal nerve

first, second, and third spinal nerve make up this

brachial plexus

are distributed to the muscles and skin of the body wall

fourth, fifth, and sixth spinal nerve

form the sciatic plexus, which innervates the hindlimbs

seven, eight, and ninth spinal nerve

is the sciatic nerve

ninth spinal nerve

innervates the urinary bladder and cloaca

tenth spinal nerve

label the spinal nerve

grade yourself accordingly

this spherical egg is partially pigmented

unfertilized egg

is polar

unfertilized egg

pigmented side which contains very little yolk

animal hemisphere

More cells than its counterpart and is smaller in size

animal hemisphere

is in the anterior side

animal hemisphere

hemisphere that synthesizes melanin

animal hemisphere

unpigmented yolky side

vegetal hemisphere

impedes division so there is a slow division of cells in this side

yolk

has bigger and fewer cells

vegetal hemisphere

hemisphere in the posterior side

vegegtal hemisphere

label the unfertilized egg

grade yourself accordingly

succession of rapid cell division that follows fertilization

cleavage

affected by the type of egg

cleavage

incomplete cleavage

meroblastic

cleavage in birds and fish

meroblastic

complete cleavage

holoblastic

cleavage seen in frogs and mammals

holoblastic

begins when the egg is fertilized by the sperm cell

cleavage stage

appearance of this is a distinct characteristic of the cleavage stage

first cleavage furrow

vertically oriented, produces a 2-celled stage embryo

first cleavage plane

follows the first cleavage plane that is also vertically oriented, which yields a 4-celled stage embryo

second cleavage

is in horizontal place produces 8 cells

third cleavage

 in this stage of cleavage, the cells at the animal hemisphere are smaller than the cells at the vegetal hemisphere

third cleavage

smaller units that the cleavage produces

blastomeres

constriction that bisects the cell

cleavage furrow

smaller cells at the animal hemisphere

micromeres

bigger cells a the vegetal hemisphere

macromeres

contain yolk granules

macromeres

ball of cells that is solid

morula

cleavages that are regular

first cleavages

cleavages that become irregular

32-celled stage

the fertilized shifts this much degree toward the point of entry of sperm

30 degrees

formed when the fertilized egg shifts 30 degrees

gray crescent

Establishes the dorsal side

gray crescent

label the late cleavage

grade yourself accordingly

what stage is this accomplishment: Increase in the number of cells

late cleavage

what stage is this accomplishment: Establishment of organ-forming zones or presumptive germ layers

late cleavage

formed in cleavage, the space

blastocoel

embryo in cleavage

blastula

as cleavage continues, the blastomeres become arranged around the outside

blastula

Result of subsequent cleavages

blastula

observed consisting of many cells with smaller cells (micromeres) and larger cells (macromeres)

blastula

located at the animal hemisphere

micromeres

located at the vegetal hemisphere

macromeres

so-called this because of the development of the eccentric cavity known as the blastocoel at the animal hemisphere

blastula

central fluid filled cavity forming in the animal hemisphere

blastocoel

smaller cells of the animal hemisphere that form the roof of the blastocoel

micromeres

thin layer of brown pigment in the micromere that is observed at the external surface of the outermost cells

melanin

yolk-laden cells that form the floor of the blastocoel

macromeres

secondary membrane enveloping the embryo

fertilization membrane

makes the gastrula recognizable, a crescentric slit

blastopore

where the cell invaginates and later becomes circular in shape with a yolk plug

blastopore

gastrulation is completed when these are formed

3 germ layers

the cavity that is produced by the infolding of layer of surface cells

archenteron

Also known as the gastrocoel

archenteron

archenteron in future stages is known as the

primitive gut

Becomes the future digestive tract

archenteron

external opening of the archenteron

blastopore

upper margin of the blastopore is called this

dorsal lip

the lower margin of the blastopore is called this

ventral lip

rounded mass of yolk laden cells that blocks and protrudes from the blastopore

yolk plug

outermost layer of cells

ectoderm

innermost layer of cells

endoderm

third layer of cells that develops between the ectoderm and endoderm at late gastrulation

mesoderm

remnants of this cavity at the gastrulation stage may be seen as a narrow space between the ectoderm and endoderm

blastocoel

may still be visible but is more loosely surrounding the embryo

fertilization membrane

movements (interiorization) – the blastula becomes a gastrula through these movements

morphogenetic

2-layered cell

early gastrula

3-layered cell, tripoblastic

late gastrula

morphogenetic movements in gastrulation

epiboly emboly involution

overgrowth of the ectoderm-forming regions around the endoderm-forming regions

epiboly

Micromeres grow downward covering macromeres

epiboly

invagination where the ingrowth of the endoderm-forming zones under the ectoderm forming regions

emboly

Macromeres inwardly push (creating a cavity)

emboly

invaginated cells go sideward

involution

which stage is this accomplishment Formation of 2-layered gastrula (dipoblastic) with opening called blastopore

early gastrulation

which stage is this accomplishment Formation of the third gem layer (mesoderm) that came from both ectoderm and endodermal cells that migrate into space between ecto and endoderm

late gastrula

where the remnant of the original blastocoel was

mesoderm

Chordamesoderm differentiates into:

notochord mesoderm

stage is distinguished by having an elongated body and presence of 2 folds of ectoderm

neurula

2 folds of ectoderm that grow upward on the dorsal side of the embryo

neural folds

Give rise to the entire nervous system

neural folds

label the neurula

grade yourself accordingly

outer layer of cells surrounding the neurula is distinguished into:

ectoderm

ectoderm that the outer layer of cells surrounding the neurula is distinguished into:

neural ectoderm presumptive epidermis

thickened broad strip of ectoderm along the future dorsal side of the embryo

neural plate

Otherwise known as the medullary plate

neural plate

Later changes to form the neural fold and finally becomes the neural tube

neural plate

primordium of the brain and spinal cord

neural tube

anterior side of the neural tube forms into

brain

posterior side of the neural forms into

spinal cord

columnar in shape

neural cells

process of the ectoderm over the notochord thickens to form the neural plate, which elongates

thickening and elongation

This thickening is induced by mesodermal cells in the roof of the archenteron; this process is called

induction

label the induction and folding process

grade yourself accordingly

process in which he edges of the neural plate begin to raise, and the neural plate will eventually roll itself into a neural tube (dorsal hollow nerve tube).

folding

process where the neural folds have fused to form the neural tube

convergence nad fusion

elevation of the ectoderm

neural fold

formed by the fusion of the neural fold at the midline

neutral tube

cavity that is created when the neural fold fuses

neurocoel

Surrounded by neural cells

neurocoel

the remaining outer layer of flattened cells become the future epidermis of the embryo

presumptive epidermis

now broadened to form a distinct intermediate germ layer

mesoderm

Extends on each side of the embryo between the ectoderm and endoderm

mesoderm

Mesoderm in neurulation is differentiated as follows:

notochord primary axial support

rod shape of mass mesodermal cells lying in the midlin

notochord

Primary axial support for the embryo

notochord

block of mesoderm flanks the notochord on each side

epimere

Gives rise to the somites

epimere

gives rise to the vertebral column, some muscles, and the dermatome

somites

known as the lateral plate that grows ventrally between the ectoderm and mesoderm

hypomere

in this stage, the hypomere splits into an: outer somatic and inner splanchnic mesoderm with a cavity (coelom)

late neurula stage

known as the intermediate mesoderm

mesomere

Narrow region between the epimere and hypomere

mesomere

Gives rise to the nephrotome

mesomere

large cells are now completely surrounding the gastrocoel

endoderm

formation of body organs/system from the three germ layers

organogenesis

experimental procedure to establish the ultimate fate of the three germ layers; use of a harmless dye to label specific cells and followed to a later stage of development

fate mapping

Formation of body organs/systems from the three germ layers

organogenesis

made the first scientific study in the field of genetics in 1800

Gregor mendel

Gregor Mendel studied heredity using these

garden peas

scientific name for garden peas

pisum sativum

Mendel discovered the laws of:

Law of dominance Law of segregation Law of independent assortment

states that when an organism is hybrid for a pair of contrasting traits, only the dominant trait is expressed

law of dominance

states that genes that occur in pairs are separated during gamete formation and are recombined at fertilization

law of segregation

This discovery opened the way to modern gene-chromosome theory of heredity

law of segregation

succeeding studies in the field of genetics lead to the discovery of this as the basic heredity material

DNA

Passed on to succeeding generations and controls the traits inherited by organisms

DNA

Non-Mendelian Genetics include

codominance complete dominance multiple alleles polygenic inheritance Pleiotropy Sex linkage

states that in the formation of gametes, the paired factors (alleles) affecting a trait will segregate from one another

Mendel's principle of segregation

contain homologous chromosomes with genes for te same traits

diploid

location of gene on a chromosome

locus

plural of locus

loci

two genes at a homologous loci

gene pair

when genes at the corresponding loci are different

alleles

are haploid, containing only one of the homologues, and thus only one of the two alleles for a specific trait

gametes

refers to an organism’s genetic constitution (or the alleles present)

genotype

genes are alike

homozygous

observable physical characteristic appearance

phenotype

Determined primarily by a genotype and environmental factors

phenotype

always expressed

dominant gene

only expressed when a similar recessive gene is on the homologous chromosome

recessive gene

involves one pair of characters, and doing this would demonstrate the principle of segregation, complete and incomplete dominance, and codominance

monohybrid cross

some alleles interact with each other in a dominant and recessive manner whereby the dominant mask the recessive allele

principle of complete dominance

dominant trait (free/attached earlobes)

free earlobe

recessive trait (free/attached earlobes)

attached earlobe

identical alleles are present in a nucleus

homozygous

having both dominant alleles

homozygous dominant

having both recessive alleles

homozygous recessive

both dominant and recessive alleles are present within a single nucleus

heterozygous

which is dominant and recessive? curly or straight hair

d - curly r- straight

which is dominant and recessive? roll tongue can't roll tongue

d - roll tongue r - can't roll tongue

which is dominant and recessive? brown/black hair blonde hair

d - brown/black r - blonde

which is dominant and recessive? hitchhiker's thumb straight thumb

d - straight thumb r - hitchhiker's thumb

a type of inheritance with two contrasting alleles contributes to the individual a trait of exactly either the parent

incomplete dominance

Phenotype of a heterozygote is ____ between the two homozygotes

intermediate

homozygous dominant genotype (HbAHbA) in sickle-cell anemia

normal hemoglobin

homozygous recessive (HbSHbS) in sickle cell anemina

have recessive sickle-cell anemia

appear healthy but have minor problems with anemia

heterozygous HbAHbS

produce both normal and sickle-cell hemoglobin

heterozygous HbAHbS

determined by multiple alleles, and there is more than two possible alleles and any one can occupy a locus

ABO blood group

Three allelic form in the ABO blood group system:

IA IB i

code for the production of antigen A

allele A

code for the production of antigen B

allele B

codominants in the ABO blood group

Allele A and B

recessive in the ABO blood group

Allele i

genotype for blood type O

antigens present in blood type O

neither A or B

antibody present in blood type O

a and b

antigens present in blood type A

antibody present in blood type A

genotype for blood type A

IAIA or IAi

antigens present in blood type B

antibody present in blood type B

genotype for blood type B

IBIB or IBi

antigens present for blood type AB

antibody present for blood type AB

none

genotype in AB

IAIB

single gene controlling or influencing multiple (and possibly unrelated) phenotypic traits.

pleiotropy

determined by special sex chromosomes

sex

sex chromosome of females

sex chromosome of male

X-linked trait

red-green color blindness

There is a deficiency in either red or green cones and the color red and green are the same color

red-green color blindless

Y-linked disease

Stature and height promoting genes spermatogenesis skeletal abnormalities SRY-testes-determining factor

composed of deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and four nitrogen containing bases

DNA

purine bases

adenine and aguanine

pyrimidine bases

cytosine and thymine

replicates by separating the nitrogen bases and attaching new complementary bases to the exposed bases to form a new strand of DNA

DNA

developed in order to understand relationships among animals

systems of classification

– Swedish naturalist and recognized as the father of taxonomy developed the first of three systems

Carl Linnaeus

naming of organisms was composed of two parts:

binomial nomenclature

generic name

genus

specific name

species

combined latinized generic and specific names make up this

specific name

Linnaeus also designed this that groups species into categories of increasing inclusiveness:

Hierarchial system

enumerate the hierarchy

Kingdom Phylum Class Over Family Genus Species

utilizes information from both phenetics (numerical taxonomy) and cladistics (evolutionary relatedness(

taxonomy

highest level has grouped all living organisms into three general categories:

domain

three general catogries of domain

Bacteria Archaea Eukarya

level further grouped organisms in each domain that were recognized with their fundamental differences

kingdom

Eight kingdom system

Eubacteria Archaebacteria Archezoa Protista Chromista Fungi Plantae Animalia

kingdom belong in the domain bacteria

Eubacteria

kingdom belong in the domain archaea

Archaebacteria

primary division of a kingdom ranking above a class

phylum

taxonomic category ranking below a phylum and may comprise different orders

class

ranks below the class and may comprise different families

order

taxonomic category ranked below the order and above genus

family

taxonomic category ranked below the family

genus

taxonomic level consisting of groups of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding organisms having common descent and sharing intergrading characteristics that are distinctly different from other groups

species

retain notochord

cephalocordata

means tail

nura

without tail

anurans

6 footed (3 pairs)

insects

6 pair

spider

Hoplobatrachus rugolosus (Taiwanese frog) specify the kingdom

animalia

Hoplobatrachus rugolosus (Taiwanese frog) specify the phylum

chordata

Hoplobatrachus rugolosus (Taiwanese frog) specify the class

amphibia

Hoplobatrachus rugolosus (Taiwanese frog) specify the order

anura

Hoplobatrachus rugolosus (Taiwanese frog) specify the family

dicroglossidae

Hoplobatrachus rugolosus (Taiwanese frog) specify the genus

Hoplobatrachus

Hoplobatrachus rugolosus (Taiwanese frog) specify the species

H. rugolosus

Skyphos means

cup

tubular or bell-shaped animals that reside mainly in shallow coastal waters

phylum cnidaria

specialized stinging cells with nematocysts

cnidocytes

Gastros means

stomach

podos means

foot

Largest class of molluscs include slugs, snails, whelks, conchs, limpets, and nudibranchs

gastropoda

adapted to terrestrial environments

marine, slugs, and garden snails

like the cnidarians, they have a sac body plan and only one opening, the mouth

flatworms

flatworms are under

class turbellaria

No body cavity, third germ layer, mesoderm, fills the space between their organs

flatworms

flatworms have this kind of digestive tract

incomplete digestiive tract

among flatworms, these are free-living

plenarians

are parasitic flatworms

fluke and tapeworms

includes clams, oysters, shipworms, mussels, and scallops with a two-part shell that is hinged and closed by powerful muscles

class bivalvia

example of two-spotted octopus, bigfin reef squid

class cephalopoda

Gk. Echinos means

spiny

derma means

skin

sea urchins under what class

Class echinoidea

has 5 pairs of head appendages

class crustacea

how many antennae does class crustacea have

2 pairs

1st pair of crustacea

antennules

2nd pair of crustacea

antennae

how many pair of mandiblles and maxillae does class crustacea have

2 maxillae 1 mandible

how many pairs of maxillipeds and walking legs does class crustacea have in their thoracic appendages

3 pairs of maxillipeds 5 pairs of walking legs

how many pairs of swimmerets does the class crustacea have in their abdominal appendages

5 pairs

1st pair of swimmerets is called

gonopods

last pair of swimmerets is called

uropods

has the class arachnida

subphylum chelicerata

ticks and mites

order acari

Fused cephalothorax and abdomen

order acari

tiny 1mm or less, some feed on plant juices and can be major pests

mites

several species of these carry disease such as Lyme disease

ticks

why are insect abundant

Feeding specializations Dispersal capabilities Predator-avoidance possibilities

Arachne means

spider

Ticks, mites, scorpions, spider, and harvestmen

Class arachnida

they have no mandibles and no antennae

class arachnida

cephalothorax

prosoma

abdomen

opisthosoma

how many cephalothoracic appendages does class arachnida have

6 pairs

cephalothoracic appendages is made up of

 1 pair chelicerae  1 pair pedipalps  4 pair walking legs

hundred leggers

class chilopoda centpides

Each segment except the one behind the head and last two, bears a pair of jointed legs which serves as sensory function

class chilopoda centipedes

Class arachnida, Order Opiliones

chelicerata

Abdomen and cephalothorax are broadly joined rather than constricted

harvestment

Abdomen shows segmentation and only two eyes

harvestment

long legs end in tiny claws and nocturnal

harvestmen

ossified skeleton with swim bladders

class osteichthytes

chordates and have a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve chord, a pituitary gland, pharyngeal gill slits, and a post-anal tail. Ray-finned fish are characterized by the presence of paired ray fins.

actinopterygii

characterised by their fleshy pectoral and pelvic (paired) fins that articulate with the pectoral (shoulder) and pelvic (hip) girdles via a single bone.

sarcopterygii

caudal fin composed of two lobes of equal proportion

homocercal tail fish

a caudal fin composed of two asymmetrical lobes.

heterocercal tail

tetrapods with an amniotic membrane in embryos

class reptilia

has dry skin

class reptilia

Ectothermic tetrapods covered by epidermal scales

class reptilia

ectothermic tetrapod

class amphibia

Respiration by lungs, gills, or skin

class amphibia

Skin moist containing mucous glands and lacking scales

class amphibia

one of the major extant orders of the class Amphibia. It includes salamanders and newts.

class caudata/urodela

otal group of amphibians that includes the order Anura, the frogs and toads, and various extinct proto-frogs

class anura/ salientia

one of the three major extant orders of the class Amphibia. Its members are known as caecilians, a name derived from the Latin word caecus, meaning “sightless” or “blind.”

class gymnophiona/apoda

endothermic tetrapod with front limbs modified as wings

class aves

body covered in feathers

class aves

endothermic tetrapods with an amniotic membrane in embryos possessing mammary glands

class mammalia

mamma means

breast

Body covered in hair

class mammalia

White-tailed deer

Odocoileus virginianus

African lioness

Panthera leo

Squirel monkey

Saimiri sciureus

killer whale

Orcinous orca

duckbill platypus

Ornithorhynchus anatinus

virginia opossum

(Didelphis virginianus

Phascolarctos cinereus)

koala