Viticulture Flashcards
Describe cane pruning
Cane pruning (Guyot) is commonly used in cooler climate growing regions, including Burgundy, Sonoma, and Oregon. By limiting the vine’s lignified growth (the hard brown part) to just the trunk, the vine is less vulnerable to frost and better protected than spur pruned vines. requires skilled labor
the producer selects one cane that will be retained and used as the fruiting cane the following year, and one cane that will be trimmed into a renewal spur. The renewal spur may be the next year’s fruiting cane, so its placement is critical
Describe spur pruning
Spur pruning (Cordon) is common to see in warmer climate growing regions, including California, Washington, and Spain. There are many different styles of Spur-pruned training methods used for everything from table grapes (high production) to fine wine (low production). Spurs (the stub of a cane that contains 1-3 buds) are generally easier to prune and certain training systems, such as goblet method, are ideal for areas prone to drought.
Spur pruning is a more traditional training method that is known to produce outstanding old vine wines.
Benefits of basket training?
protects vines from winds
in dry areas, vines are able to take advantage of morning dew low to the ground
What is fungal disease on a grape vine?
Mildew or mold, usually in humid climates.
Treated with fungicide sprays and other applications
Examples:
Powdery and Downy Mildew (treated with bdx mixture)
Eutypa Dieback / Dead Arm
Esca
Black Rot
Bunch Rot
Types of bacterial vine disease?
Pierce’s Disease (glassy winged sharpshooter)
Crown Gall/ Black Knot
Bacterial Blight
Grapevine yellows (Flavescense Dorée)
Types of viral vine disease?
Leafroll
Fanleaf Degeneration
What is phytoplasmic vine disease? Example?
Phytoplasma diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting
example: Flavescence Dorée
Other names for Gobelet trained vines?
head training
bush - Australia
albarello - italy
en vaso - spain
What is Tendone vine training?
known as pergola in Italy and enforcado / latada in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath.
Other names for basket training?
stefani / koulura - Santorini, greece
Minimum annual sunshine hours for grape vines?
vitis vinifera requires a minimum of 1250 hours annually
At what temperatures does a vine shut down?
under 50
over 95 F
Chablis vine training
cordon trained, but cane pruned, so it has 3-5 permanent branches. different from regular cordon training/spur pruning, with just one arm of permanent wood
Cordon vine training
one ‘arm’ of permanent wood, spur pruned, so each piece of 1 yr old wood is left with 2-4 buds for the next season
Guyot vine training
no perment wood- head trained, cane pruned
photosynthesis
Plants create sugar from carbon dioxide and light through the process of photosynthesis, which takes place primarily in the leaves but may occur in any green plant tissue
xylem
vascular system in plants that transports water and nutrients from the ground up into the plant
phloem
living tissue in plants that transports sugar, protein, and other organic molecules produced by photosynthesis to the rest of the plant
plant respiration
converts sugar into usable energy called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. This reaction requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and is required for vine growth and development. It occurs in every part of the plant, including the roots, both day and night.
stomates
parts of the leaves- they take in carbon dioxide
When the stomates are open, water vapor is released from the plant into the atmosphere through transpiration.
During periods of stress, especially hydric stress, the vine will close its stomates to conserve water, halting photosynthesis and slowing respiration.
Ravaz Index
used to determine whether a vine is balanced, compares vegetation to fruit
the ratio of fruit weight to pruning weight, is one metric used for assessment. Ratios of 4 to 10 are generally considered balanced.
common species of rootstocks
Vitis riparia, Vitis rupestris, and Vitis berlandieri.
Other examples include Vitis champinii, Muscadinia rotundifolia, and Vitis solonis
vitis riparia
native to areas around rivers with lots of water- so not very drought tolerant. Riparia induces low vigor and early ripening in the scion and confers phylloxera resistance. It is easy to propagate but does not do well in lime soils
vitis rupestris
native to American south- roots dig low so it is more drought tolerant. Rupestris is vigorous and will induce large canopies in the scion when planted on fertile soils. It is resistant to phylloxera and somewhat tolerant of nematodes and viruses, so it may result in less virus expression
vitis berlandieri
native to Texas, where there are deep limestone soils, so does well in alkaline soils.
explain the Winkler temperature index
looks at “growing degree days” from April 1 - October 31. adds up total number of degrees over 50 F each day during that time (213 days total)
approximate average temp during growing season:
Zone 1 - around 59 F
Zone 2 - avg 62 F
Zone 3 - avg 65 F
Zone 4 - avg 67 F
Zone 5 - avg 70 F
how much rain do vines need during the growing season?
vines need between 10-30 inches of rain during the growing season to survive. however vines in warmer climates, with low water retaining soils, or vines that are very densely planted need more
vitis sylvestris
parent species to vitis vinifera
ampelography
science of identifying grape varieties based on morphology. looks at leaf character, shape and size of clusters and berries, and growth patterns
american hybrids
Clinton
Catawba
Delaware
Herbemont
Isabella
Niagara
Noah
Norton
French hybrids
Baco Noir and Blanc
Chambourcin
Chancellor
Couderc Noir
Marechal Foch
Plantet
Villard Noir and Blanc
Seibel
Seyval Blanc
Vidal Blanc
frost mitigation methods
site selection- avoiding low lying areas
air circualation
sprinklers
fans/ helicopters
heaters / small fires
pruning
drought tolerant rootstocks
St. George, 110R, and 140R
Igneous rocks
like granite, are formed from cooled magma and tend to be strong, resistant to erosion, and non-porous.
Volcanic rocks are a type of igneous rock formed from lava. Basalt is a volcanic rock that breaks down to form highly fertile clay soils.
sedimentary soils
formed from weathered rocks carried by wind or water and deposited in layers. Limestone, chalk, shale, and sandstone are examples. The characteristics of these soils depend on what they’re made of and how strongly they’ve been cemented together.
metamorphic rocks
igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to heat and pressure. The category includes slate, schist, and gneiss. These rocks may be crumbly and friable or very hard, depending on the forces that shaped them and the underlying rocks’ composition.
3 main types of bedrock
igneous
sedimentary
metamorphic
loam
Soil texture comprised of a blend of different particle sizes, including sand, silt, and clay.
aeolian
Wind-blown soil, such as loess or parna.
colluvial
Soil transported by erosion and gravity.
calcareous
Alkaline soil with a high proportion of calcium or magnesium carbonate.
sunburn mitigation
shades
sprinklers/ misting
clay based sunscreen (used in Australia)
soil horizons
horizon A- top soil, humus, holds water and nutrients, worms etc
horizon B - subsoil, less porous
horizon C - substratum
porosity vs permeability
porosity, or the amount of open space in the soil, and permeability, which describes the ability for water, oxygen, and roots to pass freely.
soil pH
ranges from 3 to 10. Soils described as acidic have a pH below 6.5, neutral soils are 6.5 to 8, and alkaline (basic) soils are over 8
neutral is ideal, and anything lower than pH of 5 is unsuitable for farming
acidic: sandstone, shale, slate, and schist
alkaline: calcareous soils including limestone, chalk, tufa, marlstone, and marble
Acidic soil induces phosphate deficiency, while alkaline soils can induce iron deficiency
important soil nutrients
macro nutrients derived from soil: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are most important.
from water: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
from air: CO2
other macro: sulfur, calcium, and magnesium
micro nutrients: Boron, manganese, copper, iron, zinc, molybdenum, nickel, and chlorine
Nitrogen
impacts grape quality and yields.
Insufficient nitrogen results in weak vines with short shoots and chlorotic leaves, while excess nitrogen can lead to vigorous vines with dark green canopies and reduced yields.
Potassium
helps to maintains cell structure through osmotic pressure and facilitates ripening through sugar transport and deacidification
provignage
or layering- a traditional method of grapevine propagation. In layering, a shoot from a neighboring vine is laid down into the ground, where it roots and forms a new vine that may be separated from the mother vine
used in Bollinger’s Clos Chaudes Terres and Clos Saint-Jacques
phosphorous
required for energy transport and storage
chlorosis
Yellowing of the leaves along the vein or inside the leaf margin. Negatively affects quality of canopy shade. Caused by: nitrogen deficiency, iron deficiency, lime heavy soils
clonal vs massal selection
Clonal is cutting from a single parent vine. The goal is to replicate the traits of that vine across the vineyard. Might create a more even, easy-to-manage vineyard
Massal Selection = cutting taken from multiple plants across vineyard that may have undergone small mutations. this gives increased genetic diversity, possibly more disease resistance
bench grafting
scion and rootstock are grafted together at a nursery, usually by machine. where the parts are fit together is wrapped, then stored in a humid environment to callus, and eventually sealed with wax. it’s either then stored in a cool environment to be sold as dormant, or potted and sold as a green-growing bench graft
row orientation
N-S: both sides get even sunlight, but west side may bake in the afternoon heat
E-W: canopy gets maximal sunlight during the day, but south side gets more exposure
NE-SW: maximize light interception while also shading themselves during the hottest part of the day, protecting fruit from sunburn and dehydration.
vine direction on hills
vines running up the hill maximize airflow, and can be easier for machines to work, depending on the slope
vines running across the hill- necessary on steeper slopes, but require terraces. this can create pockets of different soil types, are difficult to maintain
typical yield per acre / hectare
2-10 tons per acre
5-25 tons per hectare
1 hectare = 2.5 acres
how much wine does 1 ton of fruit make?
120–160 gallons of wine ≈ 50–70 cases
J rooting
common cause of young vine decline; happens when vines are planted with their rootstock bent upwards
three most common systems of vine training
cordon-trained and spur-pruned
head-trained and cane-pruned
head-trained and spur-pruned
kicker canes
sacrificial canes that are left on spur-pruned vines during pruning. They can be used to devigorate the vine or to avoid frost risk to the shoots at spur positions. These shoots will go through budbreak first because of apical dominance, delaying budbreak in the remaining spurs, and eventually be removed.
cordon training
cordon-trained and spur-pruned
After establishment, cordon-trained vines are the easiest, fastest, and cheapest to prune. Shoot development along the cordon is generally very even, with a clear fruit zone. This system is also suitable for mechanization. Because these vines have more permanent wood than other systems, they store more water and nutrients and may better tolerate adverse environmental conditions.
however- not as suited for frost. more common in warmer regions
Guyot training
Guyot is a well-known variation of cane-pruning that includes one spur for each fruiting cane attached directly to the head, called replacement or renewal spurs. During the growing season, shoots form on each bud along the cane and renewal spurs. The grower selects and lays down a new fruiting cane, called the baguette in French, during pruning each year, removing the cane from the previous season. Renewal spurs ensure that there is always a good supply of canes near the head of the vine that may be retained for the coming year.
head trained - cane pruned
pro: less permanent wood and fewer reserves = less vigorous and better suited to high-density plantings. often more productive than spur-pruned vines (when grown under equivalent conditions) and may require more fruit thinning to ensure adequate ripening. fewer pruning cuts than spur-pruned vines; as a result, they may be less prone to fungal diseases that enter the vine through pruning wounds
con: Cane-pruned vines require skilled labor for pruning, which increases farming costs, and they are not suitable for mechanization. They are more susceptible to winter freeze, because buds are located further from permanent wood, leaving them more vulnerable to damage. Due to apical dominance, budbreak and development are uneven along the cane, with uppermost buds and those located at the vine’s extremities favored.
head trained - spur pruned
also called bush vines, gobelet, or head trained vines. chablis training in champagne is in this category.
typically found in warm, sunny growing regions with limited water availability. also common with large-bunched varieties that are prone to rot, like Zinfandel and Petite Sirah, since the lack of wires and stakes prevents the clusters from becoming tangled in the trellis and damaged as the fruit develops.
least expensive to maintain, but least productive, and cannot be farmed mechanically
sylvoz training
a variation of the Casarsa training used in friuli- suited for cool and moist regions. cordon trained, cane pruned- basically lots of long fruiting shoots that grow downward, very tall vines
benefits of trellis systems
helps spread the shoots out more evenly, which improves airflow and light penetration in the canopy, reducing disease pressure and increasing the photosynthetic capacity of the vine. facilitates vineyard operations by keeping shoots out of the vineyard row, allowing tractors and other equipment to pass. Because the shoots are organized in a predictable pattern, canopy management work is easier.
When is budbreak?
Northern Hemisphere: March or April
Southern Hemisphere: September or October
When is harvest typically?
Northern Hemisphere: August - November
Southern Hemisphere: February - May
What is budbreak?
dormant buds begin to “push,” shoots stored inside begin growing. as the shoot grows, new leaves emerge from the shoot tip. buds further from the ground push first
When does flowering and fruitset occur?
flowering usually starts 6-8 weeks after budbreak, and takes 1-3 weeks
fruit set begins shortly after. fertilized flowers turn into berries. around 1/3 of the flowers successfully develop into berries under good conditions
coulure
or shatter, occurs when a large percentage of berries are not fertilized successfully, and few berries form. While cold weather at flowering is often to blame, certain grape varieties, such as Merlot and Grenache, are prone to coulure
millerandage
also known as hens and chicks. berries contain a different number of seeds, resulting in different berry sizes. It is often the result of a nutrient deficiency or disease. The Wente and Gingin clones of Chardonnay are known for their tendency for millerandage
when does veraison occur?
4-6 weeks after flowering
pruning considerations
The most fruitful buds are those on one-year-old wood (from last year’s fruiting shoots).
Thicker canes should be pruned to longer spurs with more buds since they have more capacity than smaller canes.
If there was excessive vegetative growth in the previous year (for example, if shoots grew too long), more buds should be left this year to balance the shoot growth.
should also never be done in the rain, and ideally several days after the last rain to minimize risk of fungal disease
what type of pruning can be done mechanically?
spur pruning- leaves long spurs and results in haphazard canopies. most useful for pre-pruning
suckers
dormant buds on older wood may develop into unwanted shoots called suckers, which won’t produce any fruit
laterals
Lateral buds develop into shoots called laterals during the current growing season. These are side shoots that branch off of the main fruiting shoots. They are typically non-fruiting but may produce small clusters known as second crop. Laterals are often trimmed or removed through canopy management
Cover crop benefits
- Legumes add nitrogen to the soil but have low water requirements.
- Some grasses have high water requirements and can be used to devigorate vines through competition.
- Brassicas may help control nematode populations.
Cover crops and other plants limit erosion during the winter months, reduce compaction, and soak up excess soil moisture in the spring
types of irrigation
drip - most common. efficient in water use, expensive to install and maintainl allows for ‘fertigation,’ or adding fertilizer to the water
sprinklers- double as frost protection, and can help during heat waves. some water lost to evaporation.
flood- not very common, still used in Chile and Argentina. can stymy root growth, but can also disrupt phylloxera
phylloxera vastatrix
yellow root louse. Phylloxera feeds on the vine’s roots, and while this is not fatal in itself, the punctures allow infection by pathogens in the soil. Ultimately, this causes necrosis and prevents healthy uptake of water and nutrients
remedy: planting on non vinifera rootstock, usually american.
nematodes
native to Europe and Asia, and feed on the the roots. dagger nematode, Xiphinema index, is common, and vectors fanleaf virus.
remedy: leaving soils fallow for several years prior to replanting is helpful. Certain cover crops, like mustard, are believed to produce toxins unfavorable to nematodes, discouraging their proliferation. Nematode resistant rootstocks—for example, O39-16—may also be used.
mealybugs
spread leafroll virus
glassy-winged sharpshooters
spread Pierce’s diesease
remedies to insect damage
- predatory insects, like ladybugs that will prey on immature leafhoppers and aphids, may be released.
- Host plants may be removed from the area or planted nearby to divert insects out of the vineyard.
- Mating disruption is a technique in which pheromones are released, making it difficult for insects to find each other and mate successfully.
- pesticides can also limit insect populations.
powdery mildew
(oidium in French) is caused by the fungus Erysiphe necator (also known as Uncinula necator). Under warm, damp conditions, spores are carried by wind and infect green plant tissue. Mildew’s spreads best between 70 and 85 degrees. Powdery mildew is most detrimental from budbreak until veraison, when it can grow on berries. It causes small, web-like, fuzzy patches on leaves and fruit as well as black scarring on cane
treated with sulfur or fungicides
downy mildew
(mildiou in French) is caused by Plasmopara viticola. sometimes called Peronospora in Europe (Plasmopara was previously taxonomically classified as Peronospora). spreads best in warm conditions from 65 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit, but unlike powdery mildew, downy mildew only spreads through water. Regions that receive summer rain like Northern Europe and the East Coast of the US are more threatened by downy mildew.
Downy mildew attacks green plant tissue, especially young shoots and leaves, and causes oily yellow spots on leaves.
treated with Bordeaux mixture
bunch rot
in the fungal disease category. botrytis is a type of bunch rot
as is sour rot
best remedy is prevention- anti fungal sprays before flowering / early on
botrytis cinerea
a type of bunch rot. it lives in the canes over the winter, and germinates in rainy spring conditions when the weather is warmer.
drier conditions are required for it to have the noble rot characteristics- this happens later in the season
trunk diseases
in the fungal disease category. minimized by good pruning practices
Esca
Botryosphaeria
Eutypa dieback
black rot
a fungal disease spread by Guignardia bidwellii that plagues vineyards in humid climates
remedy: copper based fungicides, removing affected clusters
Pierce’s disease
a bacterial disease caused by the bacteria Xylella fastidiosa, which infects the xylem of vines, preventing the transport of water. Pierce’s disease is vectored by sap-feeding insects like sharpshooters and spittlebugs
symptoms: Delayed budbreak, stunted growth, and fruit dehydration- further exacerbated by drought
less bad in places with cold winters
tenets of organic farming
- Intolerance of chemically synthesized fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides.
- Preference for complex forms of fertilizer like compost, fish emulsion, and cover crops, rather than mineral-based fertilizers.
- Vineyard-floor practices that build soil organic matter, preserve
soil structure, and increase fertility. - Encouragement of biodiversity, both in the soil and on the farm.
Holistic, systems-based thinking and decision-making for long-term results.
biodynamic farming
like organic +
9 biodynamic applications to the vineyard
follows moon phase or biodynamic calendar
BD Prep 500
Description: Manure from a lactating cow placed inside a cowhorn and buried during winter.
Use: Stimulates soil microbial life and encourage root growth.
Application Method: Applied in spring and fall, preferably within half an hour of sunset, on recently worked soil.
BD Prep 501
Description: Paste of silica (powdered quartz) and water placed inside a cowhorn and buried during summer.
Use: Encourages photosynthesis and ripening.
Application Method: Applied in late spring or early summer, preferably at sunrise and never on young vines. Must be applied after Prep 500.
BD Prep 508
Description: Horsetail plant boiled into a tea.
Use: Fights fungal infections.
Application Method: Can be combined with fungicide and sprayed on the vine or fermented first and sprayed on the soil during the waxing moon. Must be applied after Preps 500 and 501.
biodynamic preparations
500-508
500: manure spray
501: silica spray
502-507 are all composts: yarrow flowers, chammomile, stinging nettle, oak bark, dandelion flowers, valerian flowers
508: spray - horsetail plant for fungal infections
press cut
dictates when the juice coming out of the press will be diverted from light press to heavy press
field grafting
rootstock is planted in the vineyard in the spring and allowed to grow for an entire season. The scion is then grafted on top, either in the fall or following spring. Field grafting uses a technique called chip-budding, where very small pieces of cuttings containing a single bud are inserted into the rootstock. Similar to own-rooted vines, rootstock is sold as a dormant rooted cutting.
this is more expensive than bench grafting, but the roots are more stable, and the vines have better longevity
parts of a bunch
peduncle joins the rachis to the shoot, and the rachis runs through the centre of the bunch. Each lateral branch off the rachis is a shoulder, and a pedicel joins each individual berry to a shoulde
compounds from stems
tannins
phenolic compounds such as the flavonol quercetin, which may enhance colour stability in red wines
astilbin, which has been shown to contribute sweetness to whole-bunch-fermented wines.
effects of fermenting on stems
freshness
structure- tannin
slows fermentation
added sweetness
green flavors
