Viticulture

Question 1

Describe cane pruning

Answer 1

Cane pruning (Guyot) is commonly used in cooler climate growing regions, including Burgundy, Sonoma, and Oregon. By limiting the vine’s lignified growth (the hard brown part) to just the trunk, the vine is less vulnerable to frost and better protected than spur pruned vines. requires skilled labor

the producer selects one cane that will be retained and used as the fruiting cane the following year, and one cane that will be trimmed into a renewal spur. The renewal spur may be the next year’s fruiting cane, so its placement is critical

Question 2

Describe spur pruning

Answer 2

Spur pruning (Cordon) is common to see in warmer climate growing regions, including California, Washington, and Spain. There are many different styles of Spur-pruned training methods used for everything from table grapes (high production) to fine wine (low production). Spurs (the stub of a cane that contains 1-3 buds) are generally easier to prune and certain training systems, such as goblet method, are ideal for areas prone to drought.

Spur pruning is a more traditional training method that is known to produce outstanding old vine wines.

Question 3

Benefits of basket training?

Answer 3

protects vines from winds

in dry areas, vines are able to take advantage of morning dew low to the ground

Question 4

What is fungal disease on a grape vine?

Answer 4

Mildew or mold, usually in humid climates.

Treated with fungicide sprays and other applications

Examples:
Powdery and Downy Mildew (treated with bdx mixture)
Eutypa Dieback / Dead Arm
Esca
Black Rot
Bunch Rot

Question 5

Types of bacterial vine disease?

Answer 5

Pierce’s Disease (glassy winged sharpshooter)
Crown Gall/ Black Knot
Bacterial Blight
Grapevine yellows (Flavescense Dorée)

Question 6

Types of viral vine disease?

Answer 6

Leafroll
Fanleaf Degeneration

Question 7

What is phytoplasmic vine disease? Example?

Answer 7

Phytoplasma diseases are caused by phytoplasmas, pathogens similar to bacteria, yet they are symptomatically similar to viral diseases and, like viruses, must be spread through an insect vector or rootstock grafting

example: Flavescence Dorée

Question 8

Other names for Gobelet trained vines?

Answer 8

head training
bush - Australia
albarello - italy
en vaso - spain

Question 9

What is Tendone vine training?

Answer 9

known as pergola in Italy and enforcado / latada in Portugal, is an alternative training system in which the vines are trained upward and overhead along wooden frames or trees, enabling workers to pass underneath.

Question 10

Other names for basket training?

Answer 10

stefani / koulura - Santorini, greece

Question 11

Minimum annual sunshine hours for grape vines?

Answer 11

vitis vinifera requires a minimum of 1250 hours annually

Question 12

At what temperatures does a vine shut down?

Answer 12

under 50
over 95 F

Question 13

Chablis vine training

Answer 13

cordon trained, but cane pruned, so it has 3-5 permanent branches. different from regular cordon training/spur pruning, with just one arm of permanent wood

Question 14

Cordon vine training

Answer 14

one ‘arm’ of permanent wood, spur pruned, so each piece of 1 yr old wood is left with 2-4 buds for the next season

Question 15

Guyot vine training

Answer 15

no perment wood- head trained, cane pruned

Question 16

photosynthesis

Answer 16

Plants create sugar from carbon dioxide and light through the process of photosynthesis, which takes place primarily in the leaves but may occur in any green plant tissue

Question 17

xylem

Answer 17

vascular system in plants that transports water and nutrients from the ground up into the plant

Question 18

phloem

Answer 18

living tissue in plants that transports sugar, protein, and other organic molecules produced by photosynthesis to the rest of the plant

Question 19

plant respiration

Answer 19

converts sugar into usable energy called adenosine triphosphate, or ATP. This reaction requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide and is required for vine growth and development. It occurs in every part of the plant, including the roots, both day and night.

Question 20

stomates

Answer 20

parts of the leaves- they take in carbon dioxide

When the stomates are open, water vapor is released from the plant into the atmosphere through transpiration.

During periods of stress, especially hydric stress, the vine will close its stomates to conserve water, halting photosynthesis and slowing respiration.

Question 21

Ravaz Index

Answer 21

used to determine whether a vine is balanced, compares vegetation to fruit

the ratio of fruit weight to pruning weight, is one metric used for assessment. Ratios of 4 to 10 are generally considered balanced.

Question 22

common species of rootstocks

Answer 22

Vitis riparia, Vitis rupestris, and Vitis berlandieri.

Other examples include Vitis champinii, Muscadinia rotundifolia, and Vitis solonis

Question 23

vitis riparia

Answer 23

native to areas around rivers with lots of water- so not very drought tolerant. Riparia induces low vigor and early ripening in the scion and confers phylloxera resistance. It is easy to propagate but does not do well in lime soils

Question 24

vitis rupestris

Answer 24

native to American south- roots dig low so it is more drought tolerant. Rupestris is vigorous and will induce large canopies in the scion when planted on fertile soils. It is resistant to phylloxera and somewhat tolerant of nematodes and viruses, so it may result in less virus expression

Question 25

vitis berlandieri

Answer 25

native to Texas, where there are deep limestone soils, so does well in alkaline soils.

Question 26

explain the Winkler temperature index

Answer 26

looks at “growing degree days” from April 1 - October 31. adds up total number of degrees over 50 F each day during that time (213 days total)

approximate average temp during growing season:

Zone 1 - around 59 F
Zone 2 - avg 62 F
Zone 3 - avg 65 F
Zone 4 - avg 67 F
Zone 5 - avg 70 F

Question 27

how much rain do vines need during the growing season?

Answer 27

vines need between 10-30 inches of rain during the growing season to survive. however vines in warmer climates, with low water retaining soils, or vines that are very densely planted need more

Question 28

vitis sylvestris

Answer 28

parent species to vitis vinifera

Question 29

ampelography

Answer 29

science of identifying grape varieties based on morphology. looks at leaf character, shape and size of clusters and berries, and growth patterns

Question 30

american hybrids

Answer 30

Clinton
Catawba
Delaware
Herbemont
Isabella
Niagara
Noah
Norton

Question 31

French hybrids

Answer 31

Baco Noir and Blanc
Chambourcin
Chancellor
Couderc Noir
Marechal Foch
Plantet
Villard Noir and Blanc
Seibel
Seyval Blanc
Vidal Blanc

Question 32

frost mitigation methods

Answer 32

site selection- avoiding low lying areas

air circualation
sprinklers
fans/ helicopters
heaters / small fires
pruning

Question 33

drought tolerant rootstocks

Answer 33

St. George, 110R, and 140R

Question 34

Igneous rocks

Answer 34

like granite, are formed from cooled magma and tend to be strong, resistant to erosion, and non-porous.

Volcanic rocks are a type of igneous rock formed from lava. Basalt is a volcanic rock that breaks down to form highly fertile clay soils.

Question 35

sedimentary soils

Answer 35

formed from weathered rocks carried by wind or water and deposited in layers. Limestone, chalk, shale, and sandstone are examples. The characteristics of these soils depend on what they’re made of and how strongly they’ve been cemented together.

Question 36

metamorphic rocks

Answer 36

igneous or sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to heat and pressure. The category includes slate, schist, and gneiss. These rocks may be crumbly and friable or very hard, depending on the forces that shaped them and the underlying rocks’ composition.

Question 37

3 main types of bedrock

Answer 37

igneous
sedimentary
metamorphic

Question 38

loam

Answer 38

Soil texture comprised of a blend of different particle sizes, including sand, silt, and clay.

Question 39

aeolian

Answer 39

Wind-blown soil, such as loess or parna.

Question 40

colluvial

Answer 40

Soil transported by erosion and gravity.

Question 41

calcareous

Answer 41

Alkaline soil with a high proportion of calcium or magnesium carbonate.

Question 42

sunburn mitigation

Answer 42

shades
sprinklers/ misting
clay based sunscreen (used in Australia)

Question 43

soil horizons

Answer 43

horizon A- top soil, humus, holds water and nutrients, worms etc

horizon B - subsoil, less porous

horizon C - substratum

Question 44

porosity vs permeability

Answer 44

porosity, or the amount of open space in the soil, and permeability, which describes the ability for water, oxygen, and roots to pass freely.

Question 45

soil pH

Answer 45

ranges from 3 to 10. Soils described as acidic have a pH below 6.5, neutral soils are 6.5 to 8, and alkaline (basic) soils are over 8

neutral is ideal, and anything lower than pH of 5 is unsuitable for farming

acidic: sandstone, shale, slate, and schist

alkaline: calcareous soils including limestone, chalk, tufa, marlstone, and marble

Acidic soil induces phosphate deficiency, while alkaline soils can induce iron deficiency

Question 46

important soil nutrients

Answer 46

macro nutrients derived from soil: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are most important.

from water: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
from air: CO2

other macro: sulfur, calcium, and magnesium

micro nutrients: Boron, manganese, copper, iron, zinc, molybdenum, nickel, and chlorine

Question 47

Nitrogen

Answer 47

impacts grape quality and yields.

Insufficient nitrogen results in weak vines with short shoots and chlorotic leaves, while excess nitrogen can lead to vigorous vines with dark green canopies and reduced yields.

Question 48

Potassium

Answer 48

helps to maintains cell structure through osmotic pressure and facilitates ripening through sugar transport and deacidification

Question 49

provignage

Answer 49

or layering- a traditional method of grapevine propagation. In layering, a shoot from a neighboring vine is laid down into the ground, where it roots and forms a new vine that may be separated from the mother vine

used in Bollinger’s Clos Chaudes Terres and Clos Saint-Jacques

Question 50

phosphorous

Answer 50

required for energy transport and storage

Question 51

chlorosis

Answer 51

Yellowing of the leaves along the vein or inside the leaf margin. Negatively affects quality of canopy shade. Caused by: nitrogen deficiency, iron deficiency, lime heavy soils

Question 52

clonal vs massal selection

Answer 52

Clonal is cutting from a single parent vine. The goal is to replicate the traits of that vine across the vineyard. Might create a more even, easy-to-manage vineyard

Massal Selection = cutting taken from multiple plants across vineyard that may have undergone small mutations. this gives increased genetic diversity, possibly more disease resistance

Question 53

bench grafting

Answer 53

scion and rootstock are grafted together at a nursery, usually by machine. where the parts are fit together is wrapped, then stored in a humid environment to callus, and eventually sealed with wax. it’s either then stored in a cool environment to be sold as dormant, or potted and sold as a green-growing bench graft

Question 54

row orientation

Answer 54

N-S: both sides get even sunlight, but west side may bake in the afternoon heat

E-W: canopy gets maximal sunlight during the day, but south side gets more exposure

NE-SW: maximize light interception while also shading themselves during the hottest part of the day, protecting fruit from sunburn and dehydration.

Question 55

vine direction on hills

Answer 55

vines running up the hill maximize airflow, and can be easier for machines to work, depending on the slope

vines running across the hill- necessary on steeper slopes, but require terraces. this can create pockets of different soil types, are difficult to maintain

Question 56

typical yield per acre / hectare

Answer 56

2-10 tons per acre
5-25 tons per hectare

1 hectare = 2.5 acres

Question 57

how much wine does 1 ton of fruit make?

Answer 57

120–160 gallons of wine ≈ 50–70 cases

Question 58

J rooting

Answer 58

common cause of young vine decline; happens when vines are planted with their rootstock bent upwards

Question 59

three most common systems of vine training

Answer 59

cordon-trained and spur-pruned

head-trained and cane-pruned

head-trained and spur-pruned

Question 60

kicker canes

Answer 60

sacrificial canes that are left on spur-pruned vines during pruning. They can be used to devigorate the vine or to avoid frost risk to the shoots at spur positions. These shoots will go through budbreak first because of apical dominance, delaying budbreak in the remaining spurs, and eventually be removed.

Question 61

cordon training

Answer 61

cordon-trained and spur-pruned

After establishment, cordon-trained vines are the easiest, fastest, and cheapest to prune. Shoot development along the cordon is generally very even, with a clear fruit zone. This system is also suitable for mechanization. Because these vines have more permanent wood than other systems, they store more water and nutrients and may better tolerate adverse environmental conditions.

however- not as suited for frost. more common in warmer regions

Question 62

Guyot training

Answer 62

Guyot is a well-known variation of cane-pruning that includes one spur for each fruiting cane attached directly to the head, called replacement or renewal spurs. During the growing season, shoots form on each bud along the cane and renewal spurs. The grower selects and lays down a new fruiting cane, called the baguette in French, during pruning each year, removing the cane from the previous season. Renewal spurs ensure that there is always a good supply of canes near the head of the vine that may be retained for the coming year.

Question 63

head trained - cane pruned

Answer 63

pro: less permanent wood and fewer reserves = less vigorous and better suited to high-density plantings. often more productive than spur-pruned vines (when grown under equivalent conditions) and may require more fruit thinning to ensure adequate ripening. fewer pruning cuts than spur-pruned vines; as a result, they may be less prone to fungal diseases that enter the vine through pruning wounds

con: Cane-pruned vines require skilled labor for pruning, which increases farming costs, and they are not suitable for mechanization. They are more susceptible to winter freeze, because buds are located further from permanent wood, leaving them more vulnerable to damage. Due to apical dominance, budbreak and development are uneven along the cane, with uppermost buds and those located at the vine’s extremities favored.

Question 64

head trained - spur pruned

Answer 64

also called bush vines, gobelet, or head trained vines. chablis training in champagne is in this category.

typically found in warm, sunny growing regions with limited water availability. also common with large-bunched varieties that are prone to rot, like Zinfandel and Petite Sirah, since the lack of wires and stakes prevents the clusters from becoming tangled in the trellis and damaged as the fruit develops.

least expensive to maintain, but least productive, and cannot be farmed mechanically

Question 65

sylvoz training

Answer 65

a variation of the Casarsa training used in friuli- suited for cool and moist regions. cordon trained, cane pruned- basically lots of long fruiting shoots that grow downward, very tall vines

Question 66

benefits of trellis systems

Answer 66

helps spread the shoots out more evenly, which improves airflow and light penetration in the canopy, reducing disease pressure and increasing the photosynthetic capacity of the vine. facilitates vineyard operations by keeping shoots out of the vineyard row, allowing tractors and other equipment to pass. Because the shoots are organized in a predictable pattern, canopy management work is easier.

Question 67

When is budbreak?

Answer 67

Northern Hemisphere: March or April

Southern Hemisphere: September or October

Question 68

When is harvest typically?

Answer 68

Northern Hemisphere: August - November

Southern Hemisphere: February - May

Question 69

What is budbreak?

Answer 69

dormant buds begin to “push,” shoots stored inside begin growing. as the shoot grows, new leaves emerge from the shoot tip. buds further from the ground push first

Question 70

When does flowering and fruitset occur?

Answer 70

flowering usually starts 6-8 weeks after budbreak, and takes 1-3 weeks

fruit set begins shortly after. fertilized flowers turn into berries. around 1/3 of the flowers successfully develop into berries under good conditions

Question 71

coulure

Answer 71

or shatter, occurs when a large percentage of berries are not fertilized successfully, and few berries form. While cold weather at flowering is often to blame, certain grape varieties, such as Merlot and Grenache, are prone to coulure

Question 72

millerandage

Answer 72

also known as hens and chicks. berries contain a different number of seeds, resulting in different berry sizes. It is often the result of a nutrient deficiency or disease. The Wente and Gingin clones of Chardonnay are known for their tendency for millerandage

Question 73

when does veraison occur?

Answer 73

4-6 weeks after flowering

Question 74

pruning considerations

Answer 74

The most fruitful buds are those on one-year-old wood (from last year’s fruiting shoots).
Thicker canes should be pruned to longer spurs with more buds since they have more capacity than smaller canes.
If there was excessive vegetative growth in the previous year (for example, if shoots grew too long), more buds should be left this year to balance the shoot growth.

should also never be done in the rain, and ideally several days after the last rain to minimize risk of fungal disease

Question 75

what type of pruning can be done mechanically?

Answer 75

spur pruning- leaves long spurs and results in haphazard canopies. most useful for pre-pruning

Question 76

suckers

Answer 76

dormant buds on older wood may develop into unwanted shoots called suckers, which won’t produce any fruit

Question 77

laterals

Answer 77

Lateral buds develop into shoots called laterals during the current growing season. These are side shoots that branch off of the main fruiting shoots. They are typically non-fruiting but may produce small clusters known as second crop. Laterals are often trimmed or removed through canopy management

Question 78

Cover crop benefits

Answer 78

• Legumes add nitrogen to the soil but have low water requirements.
• Some grasses have high water requirements and can be used to devigorate vines through competition.
• Brassicas may help control nematode populations.

Cover crops and other plants limit erosion during the winter months, reduce compaction, and soak up excess soil moisture in the spring

Question 79

types of irrigation

Answer 79

drip - most common. efficient in water use, expensive to install and maintainl allows for ‘fertigation,’ or adding fertilizer to the water

sprinklers- double as frost protection, and can help during heat waves. some water lost to evaporation.

flood- not very common, still used in Chile and Argentina. can stymy root growth, but can also disrupt phylloxera

Question 80

phylloxera vastatrix

Answer 80

yellow root louse. Phylloxera feeds on the vine’s roots, and while this is not fatal in itself, the punctures allow infection by pathogens in the soil. Ultimately, this causes necrosis and prevents healthy uptake of water and nutrients

remedy: planting on non vinifera rootstock, usually american.

Question 81

nematodes

Answer 81

native to Europe and Asia, and feed on the the roots. dagger nematode, Xiphinema index, is common, and vectors fanleaf virus.

remedy: leaving soils fallow for several years prior to replanting is helpful. Certain cover crops, like mustard, are believed to produce toxins unfavorable to nematodes, discouraging their proliferation. Nematode resistant rootstocks—for example, O39-16—may also be used.

Question 82

mealybugs

Answer 82

spread leafroll virus

Question 83

glassy-winged sharpshooters

Answer 83

spread Pierce’s diesease

Question 84

remedies to insect damage

Answer 84

• predatory insects, like ladybugs that will prey on immature leafhoppers and aphids, may be released.
• Host plants may be removed from the area or planted nearby to divert insects out of the vineyard.
• Mating disruption is a technique in which pheromones are released, making it difficult for insects to find each other and mate successfully.
• pesticides can also limit insect populations.

Question 85

powdery mildew

Answer 85

(oidium in French) is caused by the fungus Erysiphe necator (also known as Uncinula necator). Under warm, damp conditions, spores are carried by wind and infect green plant tissue. Mildew’s spreads best between 70 and 85 degrees. Powdery mildew is most detrimental from budbreak until veraison, when it can grow on berries. It causes small, web-like, fuzzy patches on leaves and fruit as well as black scarring on cane

treated with sulfur or fungicides

Question 86

downy mildew

Answer 86

(mildiou in French) is caused by Plasmopara viticola. sometimes called Peronospora in Europe (Plasmopara was previously taxonomically classified as Peronospora). spreads best in warm conditions from 65 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit, but unlike powdery mildew, downy mildew only spreads through water. Regions that receive summer rain like Northern Europe and the East Coast of the US are more threatened by downy mildew.

Downy mildew attacks green plant tissue, especially young shoots and leaves, and causes oily yellow spots on leaves.

treated with Bordeaux mixture

Question 87

bunch rot

Answer 87

in the fungal disease category. botrytis is a type of bunch rot
as is sour rot

best remedy is prevention- anti fungal sprays before flowering / early on

Question 88

botrytis cinerea

Answer 88

a type of bunch rot. it lives in the canes over the winter, and germinates in rainy spring conditions when the weather is warmer.

drier conditions are required for it to have the noble rot characteristics- this happens later in the season

Question 89

trunk diseases

Answer 89

in the fungal disease category. minimized by good pruning practices

Esca
Botryosphaeria
Eutypa dieback

Question 90

black rot

Answer 90

a fungal disease spread by Guignardia bidwellii that plagues vineyards in humid climates

remedy: copper based fungicides, removing affected clusters

Question 91

Pierce’s disease

Answer 91

a bacterial disease caused by the bacteria Xylella fastidiosa, which infects the xylem of vines, preventing the transport of water. Pierce’s disease is vectored by sap-feeding insects like sharpshooters and spittlebugs

symptoms: Delayed budbreak, stunted growth, and fruit dehydration- further exacerbated by drought

less bad in places with cold winters

Question 92

tenets of organic farming

Answer 92

• Intolerance of chemically synthesized fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides.
• Preference for complex forms of fertilizer like compost, fish emulsion, and cover crops, rather than mineral-based fertilizers.
• Vineyard-floor practices that build soil organic matter, preserve
  soil structure, and increase fertility.
• Encouragement of biodiversity, both in the soil and on the farm.
  Holistic, systems-based thinking and decision-making for long-term results.

Question 93

biodynamic farming

Answer 93

like organic +
9 biodynamic applications to the vineyard
follows moon phase or biodynamic calendar

Question 94

BD Prep 500

Answer 94

Description: Manure from a lactating cow placed inside a cowhorn and buried during winter.

Use: Stimulates soil microbial life and encourage root growth.

Application Method: Applied in spring and fall, preferably within half an hour of sunset, on recently worked soil.

Question 95

BD Prep 501

Answer 95

Description: Paste of silica (powdered quartz) and water placed inside a cowhorn and buried during summer.

Use: Encourages photosynthesis and ripening.

Application Method: Applied in late spring or early summer, preferably at sunrise and never on young vines. Must be applied after Prep 500.

Question 96

BD Prep 508

Answer 96

Description: Horsetail plant boiled into a tea.

Use: Fights fungal infections.

Application Method: Can be combined with fungicide and sprayed on the vine or fermented first and sprayed on the soil during the waxing moon. Must be applied after Preps 500 and 501.

Question 97

biodynamic preparations

Answer 97

500-508
500: manure spray
501: silica spray

502-507 are all composts: yarrow flowers, chammomile, stinging nettle, oak bark, dandelion flowers, valerian flowers

508: spray - horsetail plant for fungal infections

Question 98

press cut

Answer 98

dictates when the juice coming out of the press will be diverted from light press to heavy press

Question 99

field grafting

Answer 99

rootstock is planted in the vineyard in the spring and allowed to grow for an entire season. The scion is then grafted on top, either in the fall or following spring. Field grafting uses a technique called chip-budding, where very small pieces of cuttings containing a single bud are inserted into the rootstock. Similar to own-rooted vines, rootstock is sold as a dormant rooted cutting.

this is more expensive than bench grafting, but the roots are more stable, and the vines have better longevity

Question 100

parts of a bunch

Answer 100

peduncle joins the rachis to the shoot, and the rachis runs through the centre of the bunch. Each lateral branch off the rachis is a shoulder, and a pedicel joins each individual berry to a shoulde

Question 101

compounds from stems

Answer 101

tannins

phenolic compounds such as the flavonol quercetin, which may enhance colour stability in red wines

astilbin, which has been shown to contribute sweetness to whole-bunch-fermented wines.

Question 102

effects of fermenting on stems

Answer 102

freshness
structure- tannin
slows fermentation
added sweetness
green flavors