PPTs Flashcards
small headeater channels at the tips of the channel network where sediment transport is dominated by hillslope processes
colluvial channels
the steepest of mountain channels charac by tumbling flow around individual boulders; disorganized streambed structure
cascade channels
channels lackinh well defined bedforms and instead displaying long reaches lacking pools
plane bed channels
mountain river morphology charac by alternating sequence of pools and bars
pool riffle channels
occurs when deposition is greater than erosion
aggradation
occurs when erosion is greater than deposition
incision
a deposit of coarse material resulting from a leeve breach during flood
splay
consists of long curving parallel ridges (scrolls) that during stages of high water have been aggradated against the inner bank of the meandering channel, while the opposite bank experienced erosion.
Meander scroll bars
prticles that are less than 1 nanometer micrometer in diamter that are highly dispersed and exist in molecular solution
solutes
particles of organic wnd mineral substances that range from 1-100nm normally exist in a highly dispersed state but may adopt a semi solid form
colloids
significant ingredient in mechani weathering is and it is the repeated generation of stress
fatigue
the spling of rock sheets from the main rock
exfoliation
expoliation in some rocks like granite may produce convex hills called
exfoliation domes
force produced is large enough to shatter rocks and the process is called
hydrofracturing
the formation of discrete bodies of ground ice in cold environment soils may lead to bedrock fracture
ice segregation
conjunction with the fatigue effect leads to wet dry weathering that physically disintegrates rocks
slaking
salt crystallizing within the ibterstices of rocks produes stresses and widen them leads to grabular disintegration
haloclasty
chemical waethering is strongest in
warm wet climates
if soil or rock becomes saturated with stagnant water it becomes oxygen deficient and with the aid of anaerobic bacteria
reduction
removal of metal ions and the agents are in part the decomposition products of plants and in part secretions from plant roots encourages chemical weathering and the transfer of metals in the soil or rock
chelation
ratio of surface area to vume of material controls the rate of what
weathering
mafic minerals weather by?
felsic?
oxidation
hydrolysis
oxides don’t weather at all
intense frost weathering of exposed bedrock produces
blockfields
also called as falsenmeer block meer and stone fields
block fields
steeper fields up to 35 degrees?
blockstreams
are large weathering features that take form the form of hollows or cavities on a rock surface
tafoni
instead of boulders it fashions slabs known as referring to the gneiss rocks
penitent rocks monkstones and tombstones
what inselbergs are
dome shaped hills
bear scattering of blocks
small and angular
bornhardts
nubbins or ks
castle kopples
pull apart basin form by
transtension
transverse orogen formed by
transpression
numerousw branching irregular faults which when they move may produce upthrust blocks and down sagging ponds
anastanosing faults
results from differential erosion along a fault line and when fault scarp undergoes erosion
fault scarp
if the valleys moves repeatedly the streams are rejuvenated to form
wineglass or funnel valleys
formed when beds dip in one direction whether caused by their original position or tilting may be symmetric or asymmetric depending on the invlination dip of the starta and the provess acting on them
monoclinal structures
when movement brings ridge crests on one side of tue fault opposite vallrys on the other side the valleys are shut off
shutter ridges
where tensionsl stress dominate strike slip faults subsudence occurs ang long shallow depressions
sag ponds may form
defined as the liquid linit minus the plastic limit is an important indicator of potential slope instability shows a moisture range which a soil will behave as a plastic
plasticity index
the higher the index the less stable the slope
iton ocides and hydroxides precipitate on the sea floor as it is a green iron silicate
chamosite
examples of iron oxides that form in land
siderite limonite goethite
form by soluble salt precipitation in low lying land areas and inland seas
evaporites
common biogenic rock
limestone
chemicals precipitated in soils and sediments often form hard layers called and they occur as hard nodules or crusts or simply as hard layers
duricrusts
a coarse rock composed of poorly cemented shells and shell fragments
coquina
a soft porous rock made up almost entirely of the hard parts of microscopic marine oragnisms
chalk
are one celled marine plants that live in large numbers throughout the upper layers of the ocean. Bright blue green area in the satellite image is a bloom of these organisms off the coast of tasmania their skeletons will settle to the ocean floor as biochemical sediments
cocolithophores
sedimentary organic materials are called
dy and gyttja
a gelatinous, acidic sediment formed in humic lakes and pools by the flocculation anf preciipitation of dissolved humic materials
Dy
comprises several biologically produced sedimentary oozes commonly subdivided into oragnic calcareous and siliceouz types
Gyttja
peats of which there are many types
sedentary organic materials
3 main sedimentary sediments
gravity driven flows dry and wet
fluid flows tidal movements and wave unduced currents
suspension settling and unidirectional flow created by density currents in deep marine environments
terrestrial
shallow marine environments
deep marine environments
adjacent to the continental slipe contains material that was transported by dense underwater currents of suspended sediment each layer has coarser particles at the vottom and finer material on top
deep marine envi
sites where clay sand and carbonates rich muds are often deosited ripple marks caused by wave activity may be present
shallow marine envi
arid envi where evaporation exceeds precipitation produce evaporite dpeosits such as rock and salt and gypsum
inland seas and lakes
quiet water envi where mud and decayed plant material accumulate
swamps and bogs
measure of the rate at which humans create new landforms and mobilize sediments
geomorphic footprint
trilobite age
cambrian- late permian
what are the phyllum arthropoda
bilateral symmetry
jointed appendages
open circulatory system
segmented bodies
hard chitinous exoskeleton
crustacean age
cambrian-present
insecta age
carboniferous-present
subphylum crinozoa
crinoidea
sea lily (stalked crinoid)
calyx the crinoid antedon
age of crinoidea
middle cambrian-present
example and age of subphylum asteroza
ophiuroidea (brittle stars)
Ordovician-present
asteroidea (sea stars)
Triassic-present
bilaterally symmetrical
segmented body
elongate and vilateral
complete circulatory system
distinct head
has posterior end and anterior head
phylum annelida
age iof leeches
silurian-recent
earthworm age
triassic-recent
arachnids age
silurian-present
myriapods
cambrian-present
proposed by Hutton
rocks were formed by heat concealed within the Earths interior
plutonism
rochs had setteled out of a large ocean whose level gradually dropped over time
neptunism
who amplified the concept of neptunism
abraham gottlob werner
proposed by baron georges cuvier
catastrophism
who justified Lemaitres theory?
Edwin Hubble
through observations that the universe is continuosly expanding galaxies are movinf away
who proposed the nebular theory
immanuel kant and pierre simon de laplace
composition of planetisimals
Si compounds and zfe and Mg ocides and smaller amounts of chrmical elements
rich in mineral perovskite
mantle
composed of the ultramafic rock peridotite
upper mantle
who established the age of the Earth?
clair C. Patterson
in 1953
reproting the ratio of lead types found in canyon meteorites and comparing them to lead ratios found jn the other rocks on the earth and oyhe rmetreorites
how many percent does mantle constitues in the earth
82% of its volume 68% of its mass
law of uniformitarianism
cross cutting relationship
law of inclusions
law of unconformities
1788 theory of earth
transactions of the royal society of edinburgh uniformity of causes
cyclic view of earth change
earth can rejuvenate itself
james hutton
principle of superposition
principle of original horizontality
principle of original lateral continuity
stenos law
faunal and floral succession
correlation
william strata smith
founder of the basic stratigraphy principles
nicolaus steno
father of stratigraphy
credited with creating the 1st detailed nationwide geologic map & showing the rock strata in Englanf and wales
famous for the principle of faunal and floral succession
william “strata” smith
some natural processes active in the past that may no longer be important on Earth assumes only a uniformity of kinds of natural causes
laws of nsture have been constant through time
actualism
grand canyon layers from oldest to youngest
unkar group zoroaste rgrnaite precambrian
bright angle shale cambrianmuav limestone devonianred wall limestone mississippian
supai group pennsylvanian
hermit shale permian
coconino sandstonepermian
toroweap formation permian
kaibab limestonepermian
a bed will extend laterally until
pinches out
abuts against older rock
truncated by erosion
cut by fault
represents a long period during which deposition ceased and erosion removed prev formed rocks before deposition resumed
law of unconformities
indicates history of uplofting above sea water undergoing erosion and lowering below the sea level again
disconformity
geologic time that is not represented in the strata
hiatus
gap or break in the stratigraphic record as part of the stratigraphic record removed by an erosional surface
lacuna
what doesn’t appear on younger rocks
extinct fossils
what another way to determien correlation
fossils !
the obly adjacent to one another in the modern can be occur superinposed in continuous uniterrupted stratigraphic succession
lithofacies
a systematic and logical process that tries to explain how the physical world operates
scientific inquiry
how science operates?
observation
hypothesis
experiment/ data gathering
analysis of results
conclusions
hypothesis and analysis can be interchangeable
educated guess dependent on variables
hypothesis
working hypothesis acceptable explanation
theory
no loopholes little discrepancies
law
who proposed the geocentric theory
claudius ptolemy 2 AD
whi proposed the heliocentric theory
nicolaus copernicus 15 AD
there is limit to the number of humans that the Earth cna support
thomas malthus
concepts sply the amount of biologically profuctive land/ sea area needed to support the lifstyle of humans
ecological footprint
are constructed from a multitude of mini strat columbs that together elucidates the succession of rocks fou d in a study area
generalized columns
how many percent is silicates on earths crust
90%
silicate polymers
monomer (nesosilicates)
dimer (sorrosilicates)
single chain (inosilicates)
ring silicates (cyclosilicates)
double chain (insoliciates)
sheet silicates (phyllosilicates)
framework (tectosilicates)
basic silicate tetrahedra consisting kf 1 Si with a +4 charge and 4 oxygen with -2 charges
monomer nesosilicates
dimers have 2 Si and 7 oxygen with -6 charge two silicate tetrahedra sharing oxygen
dimer sorosilicate
have 2 bridging oxygens which can be defined as SiO3 or Si2O6 with a 2- and 4- charge result into perfect prismatic cleavages bonds stronger within chains weaker between chains
single chain
alternative silicate formation from a chain silicates will form a ring the ratio of silicon to oxygen is 1:3 ex-beryl an dcordieritr
ring silicates cyclosilicate
the sig le chain shares an oxygen with a neighbouting chain ratio of silicon to oxygen of 4:11 or 8:22 pargasite
double chain
recognized with the chemical formula Z4O10 occurs when the 3 of the 4 ocygens of a silicon tetrahedron is shared all phyllosilicates are hydrous OH or other anion occupying the rings
sheet silicates phyllosilicates
all oxygens share kn every silicon tetrahedron which covalently bonded
framework (textosilicates)
desert very low annual rainfall of
<300mm
at least 12 consecutive months without rainfall
extremely arid
<250 mm of annual rainfall
arid
a mean annual precipitation of 250-500 mm
semi-arid
movement of coarse sand and pebbles 6x larger than saltati g grains as they slide and roll inpacting one another and transferring momentum
usually does not occur with velocities less than 4.5m/s
creep or traction
the mutual wear of particles carried along by the wind
attrition
how many meters makaya rag alsa sa wind pag trabsport or erode
2m above ground
weak mayerial of yardang
lacustrine silts
essential of ventifact formation
strong winds
abundance of sand
absence of vegetation
also called earth pyramid and tent rock
hoodoos
alcoves and niches in rock walls
wind caves
concentrations of pebbles and boulders
lag deposits
other term for lag deposits
desert pavement
regs- or stony desert portions of the sahara
hamadas-areas covered with large sized rocks
serirs- areas covered with small rock and gravel
ergs- areas kf sand accumulation
another term for sand shadows that have formes where wind sweeps sand over a cliff or escarpment
sand falls
flund to the lee of a gap between two obstructiond gap acts as a funnel theough which sand trails out to the leeward may be confused with thin deposits of sand called by Bagnold as sand sheets
sand drifts
what do you call a group of dunes
dune complexes dune colonies dune chains
mobile heal kf sand whose existence is independent of either ground form or fixed wind obstruction existence nit dependent upon an obstruction or topographic break
dune
found in africa australia along the coast of the gulf of mecico in texas and in the state og tamaulipas in mexico
clay dunes
confined largely to the egyptian sand sea are flat topped sand ridges which extend parallel to the prevailing winds vut lack collapsing fronts which mark seif 100miles long 2 miles wide 150 feet high
whalebacks or sand leeves
somewhat same in whalebacks buy shorter in lengrh lacking definite form form billowy surfaces between whalebacks and seifs
undulations
also known as desert peneplain
sand sheet
what color is unweathered loess
gray
broad bedrock surface with a gentle slope away from highlands
pediments
this feature appears as oval or elongated depressions with imperfect drainage conditions
back tilting of slope faces
irregular slope morpholigy micro relief associated with shallow movements or small retrogressive slide blocks on the aero photo the coarse surface texture of hummocky terrains stand in contrast with smooth surroundings
hummocky relief
named after the greek goddess of discord and strife. the object was discovered on Jan 5, 2005 by mike brown cahd trujillo and david rabinowitz aat pamoar observarvatory in the out ceahces of the kuiper belt
eris UB313
aka friction angle charac the frictional resistance among particles ina material
angle of internal friction
the inherent strenght of a material in the absence of any load
cohesion
the ability to resist deformation and fracture w/o significant failure. it is a function of both friction angle and cohesion
shear strength
shear strength equation the total shear strength of a slope material is where effective nomrla stress
mohr coulmb
have more or less circular failure surface show in general s steep almost vertical headscarp or corwn with the slided mass in front of it the movement makes that the slide mass is backtilting towards the headscarp tensional cracks occur in combination with small steps on the body
rotational slides
slideing mass movement along a pre existing failure plane bedding schistosity joint discontinuity between slope debris and underlyong rock the total displacement along this failure plane is generally longer this results in a charac smaller depth/length ratio for translational slides in the order of magnitude of 1/10 in comparison with rotational slides also frequently showing a considerable larger width than a rotational slide
translational slide
shallow translational movement in soil material
soil slips
sheet slide in cohesionless and dry soils
slab slide in soil material saturated with water
planar slides movement takes place along one and the same failure plane
sypped slides movement occurs along a number of parallel failure planes
wedge failures failure is controlled by two planes which define a wedge shaped block which is loosened from the rock slope
rock slides
type of fast moving flow material is oversaturated with water originates from the top leaving in heavy rainfall dragging soil particles with it the kinetic energy can build up so high that and even stones can be taken along
mudflow
movements ocurring on steeper slopes 25-35 where the slope debris slides off along the discontinuity with the underlying weathered rock
debris slides
in a study of the groundwater discharging into mirror lake, new hampshire, groundwater recharge area is about
1.5 times the lakes catchment area
this is considered to be a regional in nature
subsurface flow in groundwater basin
debris and falls and high energy slides can also behaves as a flow especially if air or water is entrained in the initial movement. the tapped fluid may develop high pore pressures which buoy up the individual debris particles alternatively, the numerous interparticle impacts may produce an effect analogous to inermolecular motion in a real fluid thuus enabling even dry non cohesive debris flow this type of movement is alos called BLOCK FLOW taking larger material
debris flow
define spread extension of a cohesive soil or rock masss combined witha general subsidence of the broken mass of cohesive material into softer underlying material
lateral spread
slow movement in wc the rate of internal deformations is limited. includes solifluction general form of this is that material slumps away from the top, leaving a steplike terrace bounded by a curved, wall like scarp saturated materail flows sligglisly to form a bulging toe
earth flow
what is the movement of water
3d phenomenon
steady flow thotough
isotropic homogenous media effects of non homogeneity and anisotropy
early to middle pleitocene colluvial deposits in southern nevada
mainly darkly varnished boulders are common features of hillslopes formed in volcanic tuff. long term survival indicates that denudation rates on resistant volcanic hillslopes in the southern great basin have been exceedinly low througuot quaternary times
beginning og earths history
oldest surviving roccks
oldest fossils single cell cyanobacteria
first fossils of animals with hard body parts
first dinosaur fossil
last dinosaur fossil
first modern human fossils
egyptian civilization
roman civilization
xolumbus arrives in north america
past 20 years
january 1
middle feb
early march
middle october
dec 11
dec 26
23 mins before midnigh dec 31
35-14 seconds before midnight
18-11 seconds before midnight
3.5 seconds before midnight
0.14 seconds before midnight
a line in 2d groundwater flow field such that the total hydraulic head is the same everywhere on the surface
connects points or qual head and thus represents the height of the water table or potentiometric surface ofa confined aquifer above a datum plane
equipotential line
population growth accelerated rapidly in response to inceeased industrialization, and advnaces in medicine
around 1700s
population reached 1 billion during
1830s it took 200 years for human popukation to reach 1 billion years
projected to be 9.5 billion in the year the population
2050
idelaized paths followed by particles of water as they move through the aquifer
flow lines
porosity
specific yield and specific retention
55 40 15
50 2 48
25 22 3
20 19 1
20 18 2
11 6 5
0.1 0.09 0.01
11 8 3
soil
clay
sand
gravel
limestone
sandstone semiconsolidated
granite
basalt (young)
porosity
50-60
45-55
40-50
35-40
30-35
30-40
30-40
20-35
10-20
1-10
1-10
soils
clay
silt
medium to coarse sand
uniformed sand
fine to medium sand
gravel
gravel and sand
sandstone
shale
limestone
develops on some initial topographic slope bedload 5-20% total load of streams
consequent streams
have developed a course adjusted along some line or zone of least resistance where it could erode with minimum difficulty and max effect
subsequent stream
flow down the dip of the formations in the same direction as the consequent streams but it develops later and at a lower level on a stripped surface
resequent stream
one which flows in a direction opp to the dip of the formation and opp to that of original consequent streams of the region
obsequent stream
follows a course wc is apparaently not controoled by any factor of original slope structure or rock type <500 laminar
500 <Re <2000 transitional
>2000 turbulent
insequent stream
has formed on one surface and sturcture and has since cut down thru an unconformity to flow across lower rock units wc have a structre discordant with that above the unconformity
superposed stream
is one which having established a course maintain that course despite the appearance and growth of some structural element
antecedent
highest to lowest permeability
well sorted gravel
porous basal
cavernous limestone
wells sorted sand
poorly sorted sand and gravel
sandstone
fractured crystalline rock
silt and tuff
clay
dense cystalline rock
highest porosity to lowest porosity
soft clay
silt
tuff
well sorted sand
poorly sorted sand and gravel
gravel
sandstone
porous basalt
cavernous limestone
fractured crystalline rock
dense crystalline rock
defiens the point below c soils preserve a constant volume upon drying and behacve as solid
shrinkage limit
minimum moisture content at wc the soil can be moulded
plastic limit
the point a twc owing to high moisture content the soil becomes a suspension of particles in water and will flow under its own weight
liquid limith
3 limits separating different kinds of soil behaviour shrinkage limit plastic limit and fluid limit
atterberg limits
low to high permeability
volcanic igenous rocks
recent volcanic aquifers may have high permeabilites due to
development of gas bubbles or vesicles
fractured joints caused by blovking and faulting
development of leached zone by weathering
sand and gravel trapped between flows
95% of the total groundwater
best aquifer are the coarse grainde unconsilidated sediments
sed rocks
very low permeability (except marble) metatmorphic rock
groundwater alos occurs and moves through fractures and leached zones
porosity and permeability decrease rapdily with depth because of the weight of the overlyinh materials
marble like limestone could have well developed solution openings or even caverns where large groundwater flow occurs
metamorphic rock fractured aquifer
desert areas received
10 (25 cm) of precipitation or less each yearthe
se are known in desert areas
bedrock and unconsilidated aquifer
vast bedrock are known
sed basins of egypt jordan and saudi arabia
sahara desert is underlain by a sandstone up to 3000 ft 900km thich
nubian aquifer
groundwater under north africa and arabia
the groundwater is old 30,000 radiocarbon years B.P
will fracture when it is suddenly struck with significant pressure
rigid solid
gentle pressure is applied toa solid for some time it will behave as an and deforems reversibly before fracturing
elastic solid gentle pressure
resist deformation until the shear stress reaches a threshold value called the yield limit once beyond the yield stress, deformation of plastic bodies is unlimited and they do not revert tot heir original shape once the stress is withdrawn
perfect plastic solids
starts to deform immediately a stress is applied the strain rate increasing linearly with the shear stress at rate determined by the viscosity
newtonian fluid
include water and liquefied soils or sediments that behave as fluids
liquid
used to rank hurricanes base don their wind speed it is related to level of air pressure within the eye of a hurricane and its associated storm surge
saffir simpson scale
tropical depression
tropical storm
hurricane minimal
hurricane moderate
hurricane extensive
hurricane extreme
hurricane catastropic
max wind speed central pressure storm surge
<39
39-73
74-95 >980 4-5
96-110 965-979 6-8
111-130 945-964 9-12
131-155 920-944 13-18
>155 <920 >18
material that is still in place and adjacent to the highest parts of the main scarp
crown
a steep surface on the undisturbed ground at the upper edge of the landslide caused by movement of the displaced material away from the undisturbed ground. it is the visible part of the surface of rupture
mains scarp
the highest point of contact between the displaced material and the main scarp
top
the upper parts of the landslide along the contact between the displaced material and the main scarp
head
steep stuface on the displaced material of the landslide produced by the differential movements within the displaced material
minor scarp
the volume bounded by the main scarp the depleted mass and the original ground surface
depletion
the volume of the displaced material that overlies the rupture surface but underlies the original ground surface
depleted mass
volume of displaced material that lies abouve the original ground surface
accumulationthe
the undisplaced material adjacent to teh sides of teh rupture surface. compass idrections are preferable in describing the flanks but if left and right are used they refer to the flanks as viewed from the crown
flank
the surface of the slope that existed before the landslide took place
original ground surface
the part of the orig ground surface overlain by the foor of the landslide
surface of seapration
material displaced from its original potion on the slope by movement in teh landslide. for,s both the depleted mass and the accumulation
displaced material
area of the landslide within ec the displaced material lies below the original ground surface
zone of depletion
the area of the landslide within wc the displaced material lies above the original ground surface
zone of accumulation
the part of the displaced material of the landslide that overlies the surface of rupture between teh mains carp and the toe of the surface of rupture
main body
the portion of the landslide that has moved beyond the toe of the surface of rupture and overlies the original ground surface
foot
the point of the toe farthest from the top of the landslide
tip
the lower usually curved margin of the displaced material of landslide it is the most distant from the main scarp
toe
the surface that forms the lower boundary of the displaced material below the original ground surface
surface of rupture
the intersection usually buried between the lower part of the surface of rupture of a landslide and the original ground surface
toe of surface of rupture
who proposed the linnaean system classifiaction
carolus linnaeus 1707-1778
linnaean system classification great to least
domain-eukaryota
kingdom- animalia
phyllum-chordata notochord
class-mammalia
order-primates
family-hominidae
genus-homo
species-sapiens
motile which can move on their own
kingdom
variations that occur within an indiv during its lifespan
ontogenic variation
embryonic and oist embryonic history of an organism
ontogeny
quoted that ontogeny recapitutates phylogeny
just by looking at the embryos
ernst haeckel
the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among individuals or groups of organisms
phylogeny
the embryos are different
von baer
process of adding discrete growth layers to an organisms skeleton as they get larger common in hard shelled organisms
accretion
powerful pleobiological growth rate of organisms in response to fluctuations int he environment
implications
discovered that there were 400 days in the devonian year and 387 in pennyslavian
john wells
devonian corals
outer covering or exoskeleton is shed and sborbed and after few hours the organism expands to a larger size and a new skeleton hardens found in anthropods
molting
type of growth is typical of vertebrates wc remodel and add to their bones throughout their life
modification
evolution by changing developmental timing wc does not require wholesola changes in the genes only a small genetic change that controls the timing of development
heterochrony
retention of juvenile features into sexual maturity
paedomorphosis
child formation
stopping development at an early stage
progenesis aphid
slowing down developmental timing
neoteny axotl
addition of ontogenetic stages beyond the adult reproductive stage
peramorphosis ammonite overdevelopment
increased rate of growth so that more stages are added in a shorter time
acceleration
shuttingoff the growth at a later stage so that growth continues past the usual endpoint
hypermorphosis late enlargment of brain after brain
any changes due to differences in the envi and ontogeny rather than due to genetic differences
ecophenotypic variation
fixed clusters of individuals closely resembling each other follows an ideal blueprint
typological
dynamic evolutionary units of similar organisms
population concept
species are an array of populations wc are actually or potentially interbreeding and wc are reproducticvely isolated from other such arrays under natural conditions
biological concept
formation of new and distinct species in course of evolution
speciation
animals that live in the same area
sympatric
live in different areas
allopatric
evolutionary mechanisms behaviors and physiological processe critical for speciation
reproductive isolation
phenomena that occurs when a small group of indiv becomes isolated from a larger population
founder principle
theory that new species evolve as the genomes of two populations differentiate over enormous spans of time
gradualism
fossils have been subjected to tectonic stresses compaction crushing dissolution and other processes that greatly after the shape and composition of the fossils selective sorting by transport
taphonomic variability
how many animal species named by carlos linnaues
4,400 animla 7700 plant
part of science that focuses on naming and classifiying or grouping organisms
taxonomy
mollusca proifera cnidaria platyhelminthes neamtoda annelida anthropoda choradata notochord-catilaginous skeletal rod supporting the body in all embryonic and some adult chordate animals
phyla or phyllum
amphibians mammals fishes birds reptiles invertebratesq
classes
sums up or repeat the principal stages or phases of
recapitulates
processes of fossilization
taphonomy
chambered organisms
foraminifera
largest terrestrial anthropods
goliath beetles
shelled cephalopods
nautilus and ammonites
trilobite olenellus shows more and more juvenile features
early cambrian
the parent replaced by two daughter organisms because it literally divides into two prokaryote- unicellular and lacks a nucleua that is encosed by a membrane called mitochondira
fission
splitting of cells resulting to a amother and a daughter cell
budding
new individuals are formed w/o the production of seeds or spores by meiosis and syngamy
vegetative propagation
production of spores for reproduction
spore formation
new organism grows from a fragment of a parent
fragmentation
anopheles maculipennis
sibling species of mosquito
trichinosis
humans get parasite from eating pork
also called as silicicalstic grians
terrigenous silicates
often found as results of recombination and crystallization from parent rocks during weathering
fe oxides and clay
rich in metal suphide
black smokers
derived form precipitation soluble constituens calcite and gypsum ooids and pellets includes limestones cherts evaporites phosperites
chemical/biochemical
composed of carbonized residues of terrestrial plants and animals and petroleum bitume
carbonaceous
woody residue of palnt tissues and most coal
humic
solid asphaltic residue form from petroleum thorugh the loss of volaties oxidation and ploymerization
bitumes
spores pollen and phyto and zooplantktons macerated plant debris in water and constituens of coals and shales
sapropelic
secondary constituents often resul of precipitation frompore waters during burial diagenesis
authigenic contstituents
associated with bimodal volcanisms
terrestrial valleys
incipient oceanic crust and flanked by young rifted continental margins ex. red sea
proto oceanic rift
mature rifted continental margins in intraplate settings at continental oceanic interfaces
continental rise and terraces east coast eastern united states east of appalachians
progradational sediments wedges formed of rifted continental margins
continental embankments mississippi gulf coast
stable cratons covered with thin laterally extensive sediment cover
continental platforms barents sea no undulations
active ocean basin ex
pacific ocean
borad cratonic basins floored by fossil rifts in axial Ones
intracartonic basinschad burial
oceanic islands aseismic ridges and plateus
imperial hawaiian seamountma
dormant ocean basins floored with oceanic crust no spreading subduction
porrostican guld
ex if backarc basins
marianas basin
forarc basin
fronting the trench volcanic arc
former failed rifts at high angles which have been reactivated during convergent tectonics
aulacogens triple junction rifts
rifts formed at high angles to continental margins w/o preorogenic history rift valley alongside trenches
impactogens
basins formed in intermontane settings following the cessation of local orogenic or taphrogenic activity
successor basin young mga grabes ex: sierra nevada wala na backarc tilt divergent sa likod then results to multiple horts
more important to assessing resources such as groundwater and petroleum and are the pore spaces are interconnected
effective porosity
calculated by determining teh volume of fluid or gas that can be forced into the rock to completely fill the pores
pore volume
this can be examined by thin sections by point counting
porosity
the grain volume subtracted from the bulk volume
pore volume
at least 1cm thick lenticular/ tabular
beds
<1cm
laminaebt
contact between beds is of erosional in nature these beds are called
amalgamation surface
beds or laminae which features seasonal variation
varves
fine grained clastics and evaporites results from suspension settling for sandstones often are the results of traction
laminated beds
finering upwards indicates a sequence of a shrinking basin indicates turbidity curretn
normal grading graded beddings
coarsening upwards indicates a basin being filled with sediemtns transitioning deep to shallow to subaerial environment
reverse grading
turbidity current
pelagic sediments
e-hemipelagic mud towards top turbidite mud towards bottom
d-parallel laminae
c-ripples and convulate bedding
b-parent laminae
a-massive to graded turbidite
no internal structures quite rare with coarser sediments for finer sediments sandstorm deposits loess
massive beddings
fine sediments that partially or fully convers along the apex of a ripple marks favoring sand being deposited over mud
flaser cross bedding
more or less continuous beds in favor of mud being deposited over sands
lenticular bedding
commonly around 15-20cm thick some with sole marks indicates continetal shelf and shoreface envi continuos
hummocy cross strat
poorly understood however authors agree that these are fluid rich sediment beds undergoing deformation
convulate sturctures
mud is overlain by sandstone and heavier sediments where mud sediments are reaching upwards owing to the weight of the heavier overlying sediments occurs ball and pillow structures
flame structures
laterally extensive some are impermeable around 1-50cm
dish
vertical to enar vertical cross cutting columns saturated with water
pillar
resemble channels however short and discontinuous
scour and fill
cast of sediments covering bedding planes marks
flute casts
larger sedimetns obstruct the path of fluid flow protecting the sediments behind it
current crescents
shallow water area between high and low tide
littoral zone
area of the continental margin between the low tide line and the edge of the continental shelf
neritic zone
deep ocean beyond the continental margin
oceanic zone
epipelagic extends from the surface of the ocean to a depth of 200 meters
sunlit zone
mesopelagic area of the ocean between 200m and 1000m receives light but is darker than the sunlit zone fish and other organisms live here
twilight zone
bathypelagic extends from 1m to 4m darkness life forms contains tube worms lantern fish angler fish
bathyal zone
abyssalpelagic the area of the ocean that is deper than 4m
abyssal zone
how many fossils of bryozoans found
15000
oldest species are found mineralized skeleton from
lower ordovician
have tentalces and complex filter feeding systems w/ individual zooids growing from the stolon
separate mouth and anus
bryozoans
odovician to recent calcified marine bryozoanz
cylcostomata
treptostomata
cryptostomata
fenestrata
stenolaemata
tertiary to recent non calcareous freshwater horesehow shaped zooids
phylactolaemata
ordovician to recent marine and occasinally brackish ot freshwater boxlike zooids or with small cylindircal zooids sizes are fixed in early development
ctenostomata
cheilostomata
gymnolaemata
hati sa tunga
brachiopod
mapaghiwalay sila na shell
bivalve
most primitive survuve from cabrian to recent
class lingulata
lower cambrian to present
phyllum brachipoda
shells are made of capo4 +chitin xomplex muscles to keep the shells aligned no toothed shells
inarticulates
the crown of tentacles with cilia for filtering food from water
lophophores
genus lingula unchanged since cambrian
subphylum linguiformea
shells are made of calcite articulate toothed shells with simple set of opening and closing muscles
subphylum rynchonelliformea
includes animals such as squids snails oysters clams and slugs marine but many are freshwater and some live on the land
despite diversity of form and function among the molluscs all members of this group have the same basic body plan often indicated by a hypothetical ancestral mollusc
phyllum mollusca
hypothetical primitive ancestor that has charac that appear amont most members of the mollusca
HAM
neopilina the only genus in this entire class single shell
class monoplacephora
wormlike body no body wall made eat cnidarians
class aplacophora
chitons the only genus in class polyplacophora shell consists of 8 overlapping paltes tongu like tooth covered
class polycophora
most popular class of molluscs snail like creatures ocean lake river bottons coastal shores aland
class gastropoda
no head two shells held together by powerful muscles marine and freshwater
class bivalvia
lack shell like like octous
shell may redued to a stiffening rod
squids and nautilus are free swimming and move very quickly complex brain two lateral eyes excellent eyesight
class cephalopoda
the study of fossil animals that lack notochord (vertebral column)
invertebrate paleontology
how many percent does vertebrates consists
95%
contain single celled life forms but disctinct to each other
monera and protista
have a prokaryotic cellular organization which means that htey lack well defiend membrane bounded organelles and nucleus
monera
consist of eukaryotic cellular organization and well defined membrane bounded organelles and nucleus
protista
produces complez organic compounds from simple substances present in its surroundings using energy from light or inorganic chemical reactions
autotrophic
an organisms that cannot manufacture its own food by carbon fixation and therefore derives its intake of nutrition from other sources of organic carbon mainly plant or animal matter
heterotrophic
also called blue green alage are photosynthesizing prokaryotes and are found in qauatic
cyanobacterua
true bacteria are single celled prokaryotic microorganims that have a range of characteristics and are found in various conditions throughout all parts of the world
eubacteria
considered as the most primitive kind of bacteria and is said to evolve just after first life on earth extreme environments like salt lakes marshlands and oceans and hot springs
archaebacteria
constitutes the single celled organisms lacking nucelus therefore are prokaryotes often described as mutualists or commensals
archaea
first coind by erns hackel predecssor of plants amd fungus animals
simplest eukaryotic orgnanisms
well membrane
protista
the poriferans are multicellular oragnisms that have few types of cell and are not really organized in tissues and absence of nervous system
phylum porifera (sponges)
glass sponges are charac by siliceous spicules consisting of six rays intersecting at right angles largely restricted to the deep sea
class hexactinelllida sybphylum nuda
includes animals that show radial or biradial symmetrical they develop from two embyronic layers awautic has tubular shaped bidy body walls of ectoderm and endoderm separated by mseoglea
single body
simple nerve net
no separate excretory
cnidaria
either be sessile or nektonic free seimming medusoids move via prpulsion wherein they contract their hollow bell shaped bodies to force water out which propels them forward
locomotion
mostly composed of halides and sulfates
evaporites
rich in sodium sulfate soidum carboante
great salt lake
more or less equidimensional lumps separated by dark carbonates mud clay
mosaic
slightly elongated separated by thin dark stringers
chickenwire
sabkhas and playas salt flats both marginal and continental settings
subaerail evaporites
thin bedding and lamination
deep water evaporites
dehydration of gypsum
burial
rehydration of anhydrite
exhumation
pressure dissolution
stylolitization
iron rich sed rocks grouped
oxides
silicates
carbonates
sulfides
separation og iron bands by chert amterial
chert matrix
non banded iron formation
granule iron formation
thinly bedded volcanic related lack oolitic and granular
algoma type
no volcanic associations occurs quartzite black carbonaceous shales
superior type
relation with glacial deposits
raritan type
ferric oxides
chamosite iron chlorite oolite include hematite and goethite
assoc with precambrian and phanerozoic formations occurs as nodules laminations fossil replacements
pyritic black shales
small freshwater lakes of high altitude
hard oolitic pisolitic and conretionary forms to soft earthy types
bog iron ores
occurs near spreading ridges black smokers belived to be precipitated of dissolved metals in fluids
metalliferous sediments
ferrous iron supplied by hydrothermal systems and dissolved from ocean floor rocks was concentrated in the
anoxic layer
quartz chalccedony opal deeper than CCD host to petroleum and phosphorites uranium and amnganeses
chert
nodular chert
flint
interbedded chert and hematite BIF assoc magnetite
jaspilite
dense fine grained
novaculite
resembles unglazed/unploshed porcelain
porcellanite
low density light colored assoc with hot springsq
siliceous sinter
algae like plant origins
lenses pieces of diatomites in silica cement
light colored soft friable
diatomaceous chert
diatomites
well bedded well developed radiolarian fossils tend to urvive diagenesis
little harder than radiolarian oozes
radiolarian chert
radiolarite
radiolarians
daitoms
silicoglagellates
cambrian/ordovician to holocene
jurassic holocene
cret holocene
15-20%
sed rocks with less than 20% are phosphatic
ocean water only contains 70ppb phosphorous ancient deposits contain 30-40% photspherous resembles ooids and pelodoids
phespherites
phosphatic nodules phosphatized limestone fragments fossils might be diagenetic origin
pebble bed
forms in diagenetic reducing envi forming nodules
apatite
oxidizing conditions concentration most likely on low stands high energy envi
reworking and enrichment
> 25 % volume
volcaniclastics
primary at least 75% clasts
lava flows picking up loose pieces on the surface
autoclastics
proximal breccia
distal agglomerate
more than 10-25% volcanic clasts redulted from weathering of volcanic rocks mixed with reworki g of streams 25-75% pyroclasts
epivolcaniclastics
prokaryotic cells single celled differ from bacteria in genetic and chem
archaea metahnogens
prokaryotic single celled cell walls different from archaea and eukaryotic cells
bacteria
eukaryotic single celled greater internal complexity than bacteria
protista
eukaryotc cells multicelled major decomposers and nutrient recyclers
fungi
class of fernts or fen like plants
psilotopsida
plant like protists that are chromists has chloropasts containing chlorophyll stores different caratenoids
phylum chrysophytes
hairy appearance is due to long extensions of the scales that cover the cell
common motile heterokont unicelll
motile colony of ochromonas like cells
mallamonas
ochromonas
dinobryon
found in devonian or carboniferous periods
fungi fossils
found in neoproterozoic result of symbols relationsship between an algae or cyanobacteria and fungi
lichens
existed since 700ma however fossils are aged 470ma labdolanss resemble liverworts
plantae
first vascular platns appearance
silurian
early devonian
plants no roots and leaves
late dev
plants have roots
gingkos and cycads
permian
appearance of angiosperms in cretaceous appearance of bees aided its evolution
mesozoic
the informal group name for mosses, liverworts and hornworts. They are non-vascular plants, which means they have no roots or vascular tissue, but instead absorb water and nutrients from the air through their surface (e.g., their leaves)
bryophytes
earliest known moss fossil
carboniferous period 320 mya
also known as bryidae 9k species true mosses
class of bryopsida
`
also known as sphagnidae 150 species peat moss
sheet like protonema threadlike shape
class sphagnopsida
known as andreaeiadea 100 mosses of granite mosses brackish green color
adreaeopsoda
only plant life encountered in dry windy cold mountainous microenvi they live not only on rovks but also on the snow nd ice itself
granite mosses
subdivision of tracheophyta comprising vascular plants as the ferns and flowering plants well developed large leaves
phylum pteropsida kingdom plantae
ferns are vascular plants differing from lycophtes having true leaves have xylem and phloeam
class filicinae
early carboniferous period
most important group of gymnosperms
coniferns
oldest living tees
most massive
tallest living trees
bristlecone pine 5k yrs old
giant sequioa 375 ft tall41 ft wide
redwoods
short shrubs native to tropical regions like palms
cycads
living fosisl male and female tree
ginkgo biloba
bizarred gymnosperm plant that grows in namib desert
welwitschia
fossil of a jurassic podocarp comes from port waikato
gymnosperm conifer
fossilized spores suggest higher plants embryophytes have lived on land
at least 475 mya
bilaterain animals that belong to the clade animals known deuterostomia vertebrates and two groups invertebrates urochordares
chordates
longitudinal flexible rod between the digestive tube and nerve cord provides skeletal support throughout most of the length of chordate
notochord
named bladelike shpare marine suspension feeders
lancelets
represent the oldest living lineage of vertebrates most are parasite penetrates fish skin to ingest blood jawless vertebrates that feed by clamping their mouth onto a live fish
lampreys petromyzontida
first vertebrates with mineralized skeletal elementas in their mouth and pharynz fossilized dental elementas extinct in devonian armored ajwless
conodonts
jawed vertebrates
gnathostomes
have skeleton composed primarily of carilage largest most diverse group includes sharkds ratfishes
chondrichtyans
vast majority of vertebrates belong to clade of gnathostomes
osteichthyes
actinopterygii includes nearly all the familiar originated in silurian period 444-416mya
ray finned fishes
sarcopterygii have muscular pelvic and pectoral fins originated silurian period
lobe fins
living caught in south afrcia 1983
coelacanth
four limbs and feet evolved from lobe fins
tertapods appeared in 365 million years
tiktaalik shows both fish and tertapod charac fins and gills lungs scales ribs to breathe air and support a neck
fishapods
represented by about 6150 species urodela includes salamadaers means both ways of lifedeclining due disease chtrid fungus habitat loss climate change pollution
amphibians
group of tetrapods whose living members are reptiles birds mammals
amniotes early small predators with sharp teeth and long jaws
oldest reptalian date to carboniferous first group to emerge were
parareptiles
surviving lineage of lepidosaurs two species lizard like reptiles called tuataras
lepidosaurus
where birds come from
theropods
living birds belong here
neornithes
emu
flightless bird in aursralia
evolved from synapsids
5300 sepciaes cre
mammals
small group of egg laying mammals consisting of echidnas and platypus
monotremes
include opossums kangaroos and koalas embryo develops in placenta
marsupials
lemurs tarsiers monkeys and apes(anthropoids)
primates
oldest know anthoropoid dossil 45 mya
tarsier related to anthropoids than lemurs
old world monekys 20-25 mya apes includes gorillas gorillas chimpanzess gibbons orangutan humans
apes
200,000
home sapoens
chimpanzee and humans are 99% idential
omg
study of human origins known as
paleoanthropology
more closely related to humans than to chimpanzees 20 species found exticnt orig in africa 6-7 mya
hominins
paraphyletic assemblage of hominins between 4 and 2 ma
australopiths australopithecus afarensis
earliest fossils 2.4-1.6 mya
handy man
homo habilis
fully bipedal large brained hominid existed between 1.9-1.5 mya shows a significant decrease in sexual dimorphisms compared to ancestor
homo ergaster
originated inafrica by 1.8 mya first hominin to leave africa
homo erectus
homo neanderthalensis lived near europe and near east 350,000-28000 yeasr thick boned hunting tools
neanderthal
appeared in africa 195,000 descended frothese african ancestors
homo sapiens
oldest fossil of homo s afirca 115000 from middle east
humans arrives in new world 15,000 hyears ago
in 2004, 18,000 year old foossils were fpund in indonesis small hominin was named homo florsiensis
> 8.0
7.0 <8.0
5.0 <7.0
3.0 < 5.0
1.0 <3.0
<1.0
great earthquake
major/large earthquake
moderate earthquake
small
microearthquake
ultra mircoearthquake
a tool or a technology employed to manage, analyze and siplay geographically referenced information GIS provides the mechanism to capture manage analyze and present data allows the user to visualize and understand the relationship between geo data in forms of maps reports charts
GIS
meaning of GIS
geographic information system
where coordinate and projection info for spatial features
information appended in tabular format to spatial features provides charac about spatial data contain info about where why what
spatial info
attribute data
user friendly open source geographic is licensed under GNU an official project of the open source geospatial foundation
QGIS
a translator lib for raster and vector geopsatial data formats that is released under an x MIT style open source lincense by the open source geospatial foundation
GDAL
anchor points
indiv pixels
vector
raster
defines location on spherical model of the earth
geographic coordinate system
defines loc on flat model of earth
projected coordiante system
GRASS
geographic resources analysis support system
ifsar
interfeormetric synthetic aperture radar from NAMRIA
NAMRIA
NATIONAL MAPPING AND RESOURCE INFORMATION AUTHORITY
NATIONAL MAPPING AND RESOURCE INFORM
used to generate dem radar mapping is an effective tool for collecting data under challenging circumstances such as cloud cover extreme weather conditions rugged terrain remote locations flown in ph 2013
ifsar
what are the pathfinder elements
As
Hg
Se
Ag
Mo
SO
pathfinder elements
as
hg
se
ag
mo
so
pathfinder elements
as
hg
se
ag
mo
so
wallrock residual soil stream sediment
vein type au ore
as
wallrock and soil
complex pb zn ag ores
hg
gossam residual soil epigenetic sulfides
se
residual soil ag bearinh au ore
ag
water stream sediment soil porphry copper deposits
mo
water sulfide deposits
so
list all the diorite in ph
central cordillera diorite complex
northern sierra madre diorite
dinalungan diorite
polillo diorite
tambang diorite
batalay diorite
aroroy diorite
lutopqn diorite
diwata diorite
daguma diorite
pangatban diorite
guimaras diorite
sara diorite
calatrava quartz diorite
