minerals sir jero Flashcards by Unknown Unknown

what is the same skeme of boundstone in folks?

biolithite

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pink-coloured titanite)

greenovite

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a deep-violet omphacitic clinopyroxene)

violan

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most important and famous Mn occurrence of the Piemonte nappe
belongs to the lower part of the Piedmont Jurassic ophiolitic nappe, of oceanic origin

Praborna

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synonym of aluminoceladonite)

leucophyllite

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ntermediate between leucophyllite (now a synonym of aluminoceladonite) and muscovite.

Alurgite

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manganandalusite, is a Mn-rich variety of andalusite, with deep green colors.

viridine

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an be accompanied by lizardite which can form the major component in pseudomorphs after orthopyroxene.

Antigorite

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forms as a retrograde product rimming relict orthopyroxenes and olivine, and as an accessory mineral in cordierite-bearing gneisses and schists.
retrograde metamorphic mineral derived from ultramafic rocks along with serpentinite.
formed by the breakdown of talc in ultramafic rocks in the presence of water and carbon dioxide as a prograde metamorphic reaction.
product of metamorphism of magnesium-rich rocks,

anthophyllite

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etamorphic assemblages of ultramafic rocks containing anthophyllite are indicative of at least

greenschist facies metamorphism

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A fibrous variety of Brucite is called

nemalite

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common low-temperature hydrothermal mineral in metamorphosed limestones and chlorite schists and is often found serpentinized dunites.
common alteration product of periclase, which is commonly formed in metamorphosed dolomites.

brucite

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the lilac miracle of Siberia”
main mineralogical discovery of the second half of the 20th century”

charoite

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Chlorites end members

Clinochlore: (Mg5Al)(AlSi3)O10(OH)8
♦ Chamosite: (Fe5Al)(AlSi3)O10(OH)8
♦ Nimite: (Ni5Al)(AlSi3)O10(OH)8
♦ Pennantite: (Mn,Al)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8

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Manganese-rich chloritoid is known as

ottrelite

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magnesium-rich variety is called

sismondine

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formed by the reaction of copper hydroxy carbonate with siliceous acid according to the reaction:

chrysocolla

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Fe-rich cordierite

sekaninaite

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characterized by hexagonal rings of six silicate tetrahedral (Si6O18)12-, where one-half of the oxygen ions of each SiO4 tetrahedron are bridging oxygens shared with adjoining tetrahedral in the ring.

Cordierite

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cordierite may well persist as an important mineral in various mineral associations until sediments are literally fused to glass

buchite rocks)

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high-grade rock cordierite is present

indialite (the high grade polymorph)

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The alteration product is usually a fine-grained, yellow-greenish aggregate (Chlorite+biotite+muscovite) called

Pinite.

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Al2O3

corundum

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padparadscha

corundum-pink orange

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why is the ruby red?

caused by minor amounts of trivalent Cr replacing Al in the crystal structure.

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(also know as disthene)

Barrowian type.

kyanite

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kyanite cleavage

(100) and (010) very good

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occurs in boron-rich volcanic and sedimentary rocks which have undergone high grade metamorphism. found in metamorphosed anorthosite complexes.

kornerupine

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variety of kyanite rich in graphite inclusions

Reticite or “raethicite”

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occurrence to blueschist facies meta-ironstones

Deerite

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fibrous aluminium boro-silicate mineral, it crystallizes in the orthorhombic system and typically forming fibrous aggregates of slender prismatic crystals.
occurs in high temperature aluminium rich regional metamorphic rocks, those resulting from contact metamorphism and also in boron rich pegmatites.

dumortierite

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what are under epidotes?

allanite
pistacite
zoisite
piemontite

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also known as “orthite”
one of the most common rare earth minerals
horium and uranium, in amounts up to 5 ThO2 and 0.5 U3O8 wt.% respectively, are present in the majority of this mineral
often occurs in the metamict state due to the destruction of the crystalline structure by the bombardment of α (alfa) particles emitted by the radioactive constituents.
Can alter into epidote; during weathering it is replaced by carbonate and limonite

allanite

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crystal system of epidote

monoclinic

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he non-metamict allanites are distinguished from other epidotes by their

brownish colour,

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orthorhombic varieties of epidote

Zoisite Ca2Al3O(SiO4)(SiO7)OH
♦ Thulite Ca2(Al,Fe3+, Mn3+)3O(SiO4)(SiO7)OH

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Monoclinic varieties:

Clinozoisite Ca2Al3O(SiO4)(SiO7)OH
♦ Pistacite Ca2Fe3+Al2O(SiO4)(SiO7)OH
♦ PiemontiteCa2(Al,Fe3+,Mn3+)3O(SiO4)(SiO7)OH
♦ Allanite (Ca,Ce,La)2(Al,Fe3+,Fe2+)3O(SiO4)(SiO7)OHOH
♦ Tawmawite Ca2(Al,Fe3+,Cr3+)3O(SiO4)(SiO7)OH
♦ Hancockite (Ca,Pb,Sr)2(Al,Fe3+)3O(SiO4)(SiO7)OH

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forms complete solid solution with all compositions of the clinozoisite-epidote series and differs from it by the presence of Manganese.
common occurrence is in schists of low-medium grade regional metamorphism in association with chlorite, quartz and sericite.

Piemontite

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known as saualpite

zoisite

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Even very minor Mn3+ produces intense pink color, forming the poorly defined variety of zoisite

thulite

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most common occurrence of Zoisite

schists and granulites of medium-grade regional metamorphism

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Zoisite is a common hydrothermal product of Ca-Rich plagioclase where it appears in a fine-grained mass, in association with muscovite, calcite or chlorite, called

saussurite

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describe a pyroxene from an augite syenite-limestone
used to describe the Al-rich and Na-poor pyroxenes commonly found in metamorphosed limestone and dolomites.

Fassaite

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what is the solid solution of glaucophane

Glaucophane-riebeckite-crossite series

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ow essentially complete solid solution among three end-member compositions, Pyrope-Almandine-Spessartine;

Pyralspite garnets

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iron-aluminium garnet with the formula Fe3Al2(SiO4)3
occurs in metamorphic rocks like mica schists

Almandine:

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magnesium aluminium silicate with the formula Mg3Al2(SiO4)3, though the magnesium can be replaced in part by calcium and ferrous iron.
indicator mineral for high-pressure rocks. The garnets from mantle-derived rocks, peridotites, and eclogites commonly contain this mineral

Pyrope

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manganese aluminium garnet, Mn3Al2(SiO4)3.
occurs most often in granite pegmatite and allied rock types and in certain low grade metamorphic phyllites.

spessartine

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aluminium in Y site

Pyralspite garnets

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calcium in X site

Ugrandite group

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xtensive solid solution exist among the three and-members of the ugrandite garnet.

Uvarovite: Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3
* Grossular: Ca3Al2(SiO4)3
* Andradite: Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3

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calcium-iron garnet, Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3,
“emerald of the Urals”
found both in deep-seated igneous rocks like syenite as well as serpentines, schists, and crystalline limestone
pale to deep brown

Andradite

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(yellow or green) andradite

topazolite

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(green) andradite

demantoid

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black andradite

melanite

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calcium-aluminium garnet with the formula Ca3Al2(SiO4
found in contact metamorphosed limestones with vesuvianite, diopside, wollastonite and wernerite.
pale yellow

Grossular

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calcium chromium garnet with the formula Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3 emerald-green

Uvarovite

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spinel that occurs in high-grade metamorphosed iron rich argillaceous sediments as well as in mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks

Hercynite

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stubby and prismatic, and usually have a rectangular cross section.

Hedenbergite

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calcium aluminium garnet series with formula: Ca3Al2(SiO4)3-x(OH)4-x with hydroxide (OH) partially replacing silica SiO4.
common mineral in rodingites,

Hydrogrossular

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endmembers of the hydrogarnet family

(grossular, hibschite, and katoite)

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type locality for the minerals deerite, howieite, and zussmanite

Laytonville quarry

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n = 2, named from the Greek word meaning “a grain” alluding to the granular texture of the material as it occurs in aggregate form; humite

Chondrodite

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consists of four polysomatic series (a series of minerals composed of the same structurally or chemically distinct layers in different ratios or different sequences).

Humites

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piedra de ijada” which means “stone of the side”
believed to cure kidney stones if it was rubbed against the side of the afflicted person’s body

Jadeite

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lapis nephriticus

nephrite

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only in metamorphic rocks and is most common as a monomineralic rock.

Jadeite

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contains chains of edge-sharing Al(O,OH)6 octahedra parallel to c axis.
metamorphic mineral typical of the blueschist facies

Lawsonite

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forms by high grade metamorphism of high silica quartz rich rocks and in pegmatites

Lazulite

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Lazulite is in a solid solution series with the mineral

scorzalite

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ranges from the magnesium rich lazulite to the iron rich scorzalite.

lazulite-scorzalite series

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lazurite-calcite-pyrite rock

Lapis Lazuli

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banded iron formations of northern Minnesota. low grade metamorphic banded iron formations

Minnesotaite

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rests unconformably on granite, greenstone, and other rocks of the Archean (greater than 2.4 billion years old) Superior Province, which constitutes the bedrock in most of northern Minnesota.

Animikie Group

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extends for 190 km across northern Minnesota (Fig.1). It is separated from the correlative, 1.9 Ga Gunflint Formation of Ontario by the intrusion of the 1.1 Ga Duluth gabbro, which developed a spectacular contact aureole within these iron formations.

Biwabik Iron Fromation

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muscovite form a continuous series with celadonite and aluminoceladonite; intermediates are known as the variety

phengite and K-deficient variants as illite.

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Large alkalis (Rb and Cs) and some alkaline earths (Ca, Sr, Ba) may appears as minor impurities replacing K, Ba-rich muscovite is called

oellacherite

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Na my replaces K in Muscovite to form a distinct minerals called

paragonite

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olivine group contains manganese

tephroite

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calcium-manganese

glaucochroite),

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calcium-magnesium

monticellite

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calcium-iron

kirschsteinite

forsterite + quartz

orthopyroxene

410 km olivine transforms into

wadsleyite

at about 520 km depth, wadsleyite transforms into

ringwoodite,

depth of about 660 km, ringwoodite decomposes into silicate

perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO3 and ferropericlase

most characteristic of oxidation, deuteric alteration or weathering.

Iddingsite and bowlingite alteration

appears as reddish-brown replacement of olivine, along fracture, rims, or complete replacement.
appears optically homogeneous, with high relief, and high interference colors.

Iddingsite

fine-grained aggregate containing smectite, goethite, chlorite, calcite, silica, talc.

Bowlingite

also characteristic of volcanic or shallow intrusion, this fine-grained aggregate tends to be isotropic. Probably contain limonite, chlorite and serpentine.

Chlorophaeite:

clinopyroxene solid solution of jadeite (25%-75%), augite (25%-75%), and aegirine (0%-25%).
occurs in eclogite xenoliths from kimberlite as well as in crustal rocks metamorphosed at high pressures.

Omphacite

complex inosilicate mineral of the amphibole group.
solidus temperature of the lherzolite
main water-storage site in the uppermost mantle, however it becomes unstable at depths greater than 90 km.

Pargasite

forms complete solid solution with all compositions of the clinozoisite-epidote series and differs from it by the presence of manganese.

Piemontite

solid solution of pyrite (incomplete) Ni-isomorph

vaesite (NiS2) and cattierite (CoS2)

occurs as stalactite masses. found in Cape of Good Hope in South Africa

Prehnite

nesosilicate containing both independent SiO4- tetrahedral and Si2O76- units cross-linking octahedral chains occupied by metals.
occurs as amygdaloidal and fracture fillings in basaltic and gabbroic rocks in metamorphic terranes

Pumpellyite

stable below 573°C

(α)-Quartz:

stable from 573 to 870°C

(β)-Quartz

never stable, exists metastably below 117°C

(β)-Tridymite

stable from 867°C to 1470°C

(α)-Tridymite:

never stable, exists metastably below 267°C

(α)-Cristobalite

stable from 1470°C to 1723°C

(β)-Cristobalite:

high-pressure phase found in meteor impact craters, stable at pressures of 2-3GPa and from 700 to 1700°C

Coesite

high-pressure phase found in meteor crater, stability field unknown.

Stishovite:

natural form of silica that lacks a definitive crystal structure. It is amorphous and considered a natural glass, and is scientifically classified as a mineraloid. lightning strike or during high pressure shock metamorphism due to meteorite impact and is a common component of a type of glassy ejecta called tektites.

Lechatelierite

high-pressure, low-temperature polyOF RHODONITEmorph.

pyroxmangite

greyish-brown variety containing as much as 20% of calcium oxide is called

bustamite

zinciferous variety containing 7% of zinc oxide

fowlerite

polymorphs of the TiO2

rutile
brookite
anatase

(sometimes known by the obsolete name “octahedrite”), a tetragonal mineral of pseudo-octahedral habit.

Anatase

an orthorhombic mineral

Brookite

rutile also solid solution with

tapiolite

“blauer Diamantspath (saphirin)”
high-temperature minerals of regional metamorphism ore contact metamorphism.
characteristic of the granulite-amphibolite facies and silica poor, Mg-rich rocks

Sapphirine

Sapphirine remains stable up to pressures of about 17-25 Kbar and up to temperatures of 1000°C; Beyond that limit, Sapphirine dissociates in

pyrope, spinel and corundum

Scapolite

Meionite: Ca4(Al2Si2O8)3(CO3,SO4)
Marialite: Na4(AlSi3O8)3Cl

roup of aluminosilicate minerals that includes meionite, marialite and silvialite assive specimens often exhibit a wood-grain or fibrous texture which facilitates their identification.

Scapolite

members of the serpentine group
repeated two-layer arrangement of one tetrahedral (SiO4) and one octahedral (Mg(OH)2) laye

Antigorite - (Mg,Fe)3Si2O5(OH)2
Chrysotile - Mg3Si2O5(OH)4
Lizardite - Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4

derived from dunites, peridotites and other ultramafic-mafic rocks

Serpentine

A common variety of sillimanite is known as

fibrolite,

twinned, six-sided crystals that sometimes intersect at 90 degrees to form a cross (an intersection angle of 60 degrees is more common
consist basically of layers Al2SiO5 (kyanite composition) and layers of AlFe2O2(OH)2 alternating parallel to (010).
may alter to sericite, chlorite and limonite

Staurolite

With increasing metamorphic grade, staurolite becomes

almandine and kyanite or sillimanite:

a common mineral in low-grade metagreywackes and blueschist-facies rocks, as well as in metamorphosed iron formations.

Stilpnomelane

(also known as lavulite)
rare pink to purple cyclosilicate

Sugilite

he ratio of talc and kyanite is dependent on aluminium content, with more aluminous rocks favoring production of kyanite. Such rocks are typically white, friable, and fibrous, and are known

whiteschist.

mineral rich in barium and occurring in brownish red radially fibrous aggregates in metamorphic contact rocks

taramellite

also known as rosaline, is a a pink variety of zoisite, frequently manganian

Thulite

very rare mineral found in the Murun Massif
occurs as an accessory mineral in potassic feldspar metasomatites at the contact with limestones.
derived from its composition: titanium (Ti), sodium (Na) potassium (K) and silicon (Si).

Tinaksite

Mesozoic K-alkaline intrusions are abundant at the Aldan shield and they are distributed in the northern part with a strike roughly parallel to the NE-SW trending Mongolia-Okhotsk orogenic belt

Murun Complex

borosilicate and belong to the axinite group. manganese-bearing ophiolites that have been metamorphosed as well as in quartz veins running through chert in greenschist facies.

Tinzenite

series name for a group of isostructural minerals, all with the same structure but different chemistry. They are named for their respective enrichment in either iron, magnesium and manganese, except for the iron manganese intermediate

Axinite

The axinite group includes:

Axinite-(Fe) or ferroaxinite, Ca2Fe2+Al2BOSi4O15(OH)
Axinite-(Mg) or magnesioaxinite, Ca2MgAl2BOSi4O15(OH)
Axinite-(Mn) or manganaxinite, Ca2Mn2+Al2BOSi4O15(OH)
Tinzenite, Ca2Mn2+4Al4B2Si8O302.

orthosilicate with independent SiO4 tetrehedra united by Ti4+ in octahedral coordination and Ca2+ in sevenfold coordination. Al3+ or Fe3+ may partially replace Ti4+ and are most common impurity.
associated with chlorite

titanite

has a greater presence of magnesium over iron compared to actinolite
result of contact metamorphism of calcium and magnesium rich siliceous sedimentary rocks and in greenschist facies metamorphic rocks derived from ultramafic or magnesium carbonate bearing rocks.

tremolite

consists of six-fold rings of silicon tetrahedra stacked with BO3 groups between the rings that form columns parallel to the c axis distinguished from biotite and hornblende by the absence of cleavage

tourmaline

hyacinthus dictus octodecahedricus
hyacinte du Vesuve”
closely resembles that of garnet
common mineral in skarns formed during contact or regional metamorphism of limestones; in garnetized gabbros, mafic and ultramafic rocks, and serpentinites.

Vesuvianite or idocrase

Violet clinopyroxenes from the manganese deposit of Praborna, near St. Marcel occur in two different varieties: euhedral crystals grown in vugs and massive lamellar to fibrous aggregates. The deep violet colour, occasionally shading to blue, is presumably due to the presence of both Mn3+ and Mn2+ ions. makita pud sa praborna mine

violan

who discovered palladium (1804) and rhodium (1809) and invented the reflecting goniometer (1809).

William Hyde Wollaston Norfolk,

a calcium inosilicate mineral. It forms when impure limestone or dolostone is subjected to high temperature and pressure sometimes in the presence of silica-bearing fluids as in skarns or contact metamorphic rocks. Associated minerals include garnets, vesuvianite, diopside, tremolite, epidote, plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene and calcite.

Wollastonite

In the progressive metamorphism of siliceous dolomites, the early stages of the sequence are

talc-tremolite-diopside-forsterite-wollastonite-periclase-monticellite,

mposed of coarse interlocking, often curved, flakes of talc with interstitial patches of quartz, exhibiting strain shadows; large irregularly margined grains of yoderite enclose random flakes of talc and some quartz. A constant feature is the presence within each yoderite grain of relicts of kyanite.

he quartz-yoderite-kyanite-talc schist of Mautia hills

associated with deerite, in riebeckite-garnet-stilpnomelane metachert from the Franciscan formation of California

Zussmanite

Monomineralic coronas are also known as

moats

polymineralic ones composed of an intergrowth of small elongate new grains are known as

symplectitic coronas.

he structure of lamellar or vermicular fine-grained intergrown material is known as

symplectite.

metamorphic rock texture comprising of equigranular, interlocking, randonly orientated platy, tabular, prismatic or elongate minerals.
similar to a granoblastic texture.

Decussate (or diablastic) texture

crystal lattice which contains a large number of similar dislocations can be slightly bent; as a result, the crystal does not extinguish homogeneously as observed with crossed polars; this effect is known as

undulose extinction.

crystals deformed at low temperature by intracrystalline deformation are lamellae with a high optical relief which usually have a distinct preferred orientation, known as

deformation lamellae

characterized by phyllosilicate-rich (P) domains, in which phyllosilicates deï¬ne the overall cleavage, separated by quartz and feldspar-rich (QF)domains
most common type of cleavage in multiply deformed, intermediate to high-grade metapelitic rocks
created when an earlier foliation is folded (crenulated) on a meso- to microscale. An already established tectonic foliation can be affected by a later cleavage (S2 or higher) if the orientation of the ISA (Instantaneous Stretching Axes) changes locally or regionally at some point during the deformation, or if a later cleavage-forming deformation phase occurs.
series of microfolds at the centimeter scale or less with parallel axial surfaces.

crenulation cleavage

a grade of coal that has properties between those of bituminous coal and anthracite an
also known as thermal coal, is used in power stations to generate electricity

steam coal

german of lignite
flame coal
gas flame coal
gas coal
fat coal
forge coal
non baking coal
anthracite

braunkohle
flammkohle
gasglammhohle
gashkohle
fettkohle
fettkohle
esskohle
magerkohle
anthrazit

lignin content of plants may fall within the
range of

10–35%

woody material the lignin may be within the narrower
range of

25–30% w/w

protein content of grasses has been assigned
to fall within the range of

15–20%

cellulose (carbohydrate) content of grasses falls in the range
of

20–55%

complex, 3-dimensional
polymer rich in aromatic (benzene) rings

lignin,

When the pH of the medium is sufficient (pH = ∼4), these bacteria die. The product
at this stage is a gel-like material called

Gytta (sometime referred to as proto-coal).

(the
non-hydrocarbon species in coal, i.e., nitrogen-, oxygen-, and sulfur-containing
species)

heteroatom species

oxygen content of coal ranges from a high of 20–30% by weight for a lignite

1.5–2.5% by weight for an anthracite.

thiophene ring system.
important sulfur types

aryl sulfides,
alkyl sulfides, and acyclic sulfides

occur in coal to the extent of several parts per million and, on
combustion of the coal a varying quantity of these elements are released or retained in
the ash

Arsenic and selenium

represent the macrostructure of coal and are,
in fact, descriptive of the coal

Lithotypes

The organic constituents in coal and non-coal organic-rich rocks
are termed macerals

Macerals

oxidized, with fire thought to be the primary cause
of their formation.

Inertinite macerals

products of such
oxidation and, in most coals, are the most abundant inertinite macerals.

fusinite and semifusinite

product of the oxidation of plant secretions

Secretinite

riginated as a secondary maceral from the breakdown of hydrogen-rich liptinite.

Micrinite

consists predominantly of inertinite and also contains impurities such as kaolin
(as well as other clays), pyrite, and carbonate minerals

Fusite

(which also contains exinite in addition to vitrinite) is more
commonly found as thick bands in clarains but does not occur in many other coals;
clarite may also contain inorganic impurities such as clay, pyrite, and carbonates

clarite

composed predominantly of exinite and inertinite a

Durite

indicates that the durite is relatively
rich in exinite

(durite E)

indicates the durite to be relatively rich in
inertinite.

(durite I)

Liptobiolithic (non-banded)

Boghead Algal debris present
Cannel Spore debris present

High hydrogen content

Sapropelic

Black, vitreous

Vitrain

Charcoal-like

Fusain

Nonstriated

Durain

Striated, glossy

Clarain

Low hydrogen content

Humic (banded)

Anthraxylon absent

Non-banded coal

> 30% w/w opaque matter

Splint coal

20–30% w/w opaque

Semi-splint coal

<20% w/w opaque matter

Bright coal

Anthraxylona present Opaque matter present

Banded coal

A mass of recently accumulated to partially carbonized plant
debris that is not classed as coal; an organic sediment that
has a carbon content <60% w/w on a dry ash-free basis.

Peat

The lowest rank of coal (also called brown coal), which may
contain recognizable plant structures; the heating value is
<8300 Btu/lb on a mineral matter free basis and a carbon
content from 60% to 70% w/w on a dry ash-free basis.

Lignite

Coal with a carbon content on the order of 71–77% w/w on a
dry ash-free basis) and a heating value between 8300 and
13,000 Btu/lb on a mineral matter free basis; on the basis of
heating value, this coal is subdivided into sub bituminous
A, sub bituminous B, and sub bituminous C coals

Sub Bituminous

Coal with a carbon content on the order of 77% and 87% w/w
on a dry ash-free basis and a heating value that is much
higher than lignite or sub bituminous coal; on the basis of
volatile matter production, bituminous coal is subdivided
into low volatile bituminous coal, medium volatile
bituminous coal, and high volatile bituminous coal; often
referred to as soft coal (in relation to anthracite).

Bituminous

The highest rank of coal with a carbon content greater than
87% w/w on a dry ash-free basis and the highest heating
value per pound on a mineral matter free basis; often
subdivided into semi-anthracite, anthracite, and
meta-anthracite on the basis of carbon content and hard
coal (in relation to bituminous coal)

Anthracite

hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)

e antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), beryllium (Be), cadmium
(Cd), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), selenium (Se), mercury (Hg), cobalt (Co), chromium
(Cr), and manganese (Mn), with chlorine (Cl) and the radionuclides, thorium (Th)
and uranium (U),

increase in volume of
the coal when it is heated in the absence of air;
vitrinite maceral
group is the main contributor to the swelling properties.

Free-swelling index (FSI)

how the coal behaves as the different macerals melt, devolatilize, and resolidify at different temperatures during
the carbonization process

Gieseler plastometer

determine the proportions of coke or char (carbonaceous solids), tar (organic liquids), liquor (ammonia-rich solutions), and
gas produced when the coal is carbonized (heated in the absence of air)

Gray-King assays

indicates the ease with which
the coal can be ground to fine powder

Hardgrove grindability index

indicates the amount of heat liberated per unit of mass of combusted coal; this is a rank-related parameter but is
also dependent on the macerals in the coal and mineral composition

Heating value (calorific value)

provides information on the caking properties of the
coal; the index is derived from the strength or cohesion of the coke produced in
the crucible, as evaluated by a subsequent tumbler test.

Roga index

First appearance of lignified land plants

Late Silurian

Large, diverse flora of spore-dispersing
plants, including ferns and slender
trees with varying amounts of
branching and leaf development

Carboniferous

Seed-fern flora (glossopteris) flourishes
all over Gondwanaland

Permian

Seed-bearing plants flourish, with
conifers and cycadophytes prominent

Triassic and Jurassic

Flowering plants evolve (Angiosperms)

Cretaceous

Essentially modern flora in most
respects

Late Cretaceous

Grasses and sedges appear

Tertiary

name given to a once-existing supercontinent comprising what are now South
America, Africa, India, Australasia, and Antarctica.

aGondwanaland

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