diagnostic Flashcards
this forms the coastal folded belt of northern luzon and extends north and south between the high cordillera central and south china sea
ilocos basin
temperature wherein diagenesis occur
200C
product of extremely high grade regional metamorphism resulting into partial melting
migmatite
difference of speleothems and speleogens
Speleothems are formed over thousands of years and are deposited on top of the existing cave. Speleogens are similar but form inside the bedrock at the same time as the cave.
uses a 3d spherical surface to define locations on Earth
Geographic Coordinate System
divides the world into sixty north-south zones, each 6 degrees of longitude wide. UTM zones are numbered consecutively beginning with Zone 1, which includes the westernmost point of Alaska, and progress eastward to Zone 19, which includes Maine.
The UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinate system
the result of very high shear stress, such as occurs along fault zones. Dynamic metamorphism occurs at relatively low temperatures compared to other types of metamorphism, and consists predominantly of the physical changes that happen to a rock experiencing shear stress.
Dynamic metamorphism
occurs when low-grade or unmetamorphosed rocks change mineralogy or texture in response to a temperature increase.
Prograde metamorphism
what is the oh stratigraphic groupings
southwest luzon uplands
proposed extrusion tectonic to explain the formation of the South China Sea
Taponnier
typhoon to have a landfall over the Mindanao Island in December 2012 and the name was retired due to its high casualty and damages
Typhoon Pablo
will form in a metamorphic envi and when carbon is subjected to heat and pressure
graphite
linear trough of subsidence of the Earth’s crust within which vast amounts of sediment accumulate.
geosyncline
there were 4 main mobile belts that formed in the paleozoic namely franklin cordilleran applachian and
ouachita
discovered in a cave in the St. Paul Limestone Formation in Palawan PH
Sirenia (dugongs and manatees)
what are these
manidae
primates
dermoptera
pangolins
primates
flying lemurs
direct implication of the opening of the China Sea
movement of the palawan microcontinental block from mainland china
what is the taiwan collision zone charac as
continent-arc
in soil temperature regimes the PH islands most likely belong to what category
isohyperthermic
what does proglacial means
in front of the glacier
rare extrusive and intrusive igneous rocks that are silicic and sodium-rich. They were originally associated with the subduction of young oceanic lithosphere (≤ 25 Ma); however, they are now also commonly identified in non-subduction zone settings.
Adakites
any orthopyroxene-bearing quartz-feldspar rock formed at high temperature and pressure, commonly found in granulite facies’ metamorphic regions, sensu stricto as an endmember of the charnockite series.
Charnockite
type of plutonic igneous rock containing quartz (20 – 60% of the felsic minerals) and abundant plagioclase.
Tonalite
this crystallizes in the isometric system
pyrite
is a sequence of sedimentary rock layers that progress from deep-water and turbidity flow deposits to shallow-water shales and sandstones. It is deposited when a deep basin forms rapidly on the continental side of a mountain building episode.
Flysch
thick association of continental and marine clastic sedimentary rocks that consists mainly of sandstones and shales formed as shore deposits and refers to sandstones, shales and conglomerates that form as terrestrial or shallow marine deposits in front of rising mountain chains.
Molasses
what kind of rock is zambales jade?
uvarovite
chromium-bearing garnet group species
major type of seal in petroleum system
mudstone
where does stilbite belong?
zeolite
also known as siliceous sinter
geyserite
<10
5 calsilicate minerals, 0-20% mica 80-100 quartz + feldspar
psammite
high growth and high nucleation rates lead to what kind of texture
aphanitic
texture usually restricted to coarser grained rocks that consists of concentrically banded spheres wherein the bands consist of alternating light colored and dark colored minerals
orbicular
rare group of ultrapotassic igneous rocks charac by the presence of phenocrysts of mica and amphibole
lamproites
a term that may be used for a light colored <10% alkali feldspar granite
alaskite
a low-relief, broad volcanic crater formed by shallow explosive eruptions. The explosions are usually caused by the heating and boiling of groundwater when magma invades the groundwater table.
lower than scoria cone and has much larger central crater relative to the deposited ring of debris
maar
tactite is a synonym of which metamorphic rock
skarn
leuco-tonalite also known as
trondhjemite
what does CIPW stands for?
Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington.
chlorite + actinolite +/- albite +/- epidote
greenschist
high-grade metamorphic rocks of the granulite facies that have experienced high-temperature and moderate-pressure metamorphism.
orthopyroxene+clinopyroxene+plag+garnet
granulite
characterized by the minerals jadeite, glaucophane, epidote, lawsonite, and garnet.
blueschist
high-pressure, moderate-temperature conditions and typically characterized by the development of the mineral assemblage pyrope garnet and omphacite
Eclogite facies
facies charac by high pressure and moderate temp
sanbagawa
high temperature-low-pressure metamorphism and implies a higher geothermal gradient than in other regional metamorphic settings
Buchan-type
series of rocks that pass through the Zeolite, Prehnite-Pumpellyite, Blueschist, and Eclogite Facies of Regional Metamorphism
Franciscan Facies Series
flood basalt province had a peak volcanic activity around 65 MA which is close to the cretaceous tertiary extinction event
deccan
law states that angles between equivalent faces of crystals of the same mineral are always the same
steno’s law
the crystal class or point group 23 belong to which crystal system
isometric
softest mineral in talmage hardness scale denoted by A
acanthite
leucite, nepheline, sodalite, and lazurite vishnevite
feldspathoid
chemical formula of pyroxene
XYSi2O6
diposide hedenrbergite and augite are classified as
calcic clinopyroxene
synonym for vesuvianite
idocrase
The high density of these minerals gives rise to a qualitative property called Experienced geologists can roughly assess specific gravity
minerals density obtained by picking up the mineral and holding in your hand
“heft.”
deep red colors of gemstones is caused by small amounts of which element
chromium
composition of chert
quartz
crystal in which the strenght of all bonds from a cation to its coordinating anions is equal to exactly one half the charge of the anions
mesodesmic
locally known as adobe
tuff
the only known deposit of zeolite in ph is found in
mangatarem pangasinan
. The reference plane, or _____, from which elevations are measured for topographic maps, is
the mean (average) sea level.
Datum
. Assuming a zinc deposit is altering a dolomite rock, the isotope of which element can be used
to trace the orebody?
Strontium
The Geological Society of the Philippines (GSP), the only accredited integrated professional
organization of geologists in the Philippines by PRC, was established on
September 2, 1945
The volcano that erupted in 1951 which led to approximately 500 casualties
Hibok-hibok
The equation which yields the rate at which groundwater can pass through a unit area of
aquifer perpendicular to the flow
Hydraulic conductivity
. A type of ore-bearing fluid usually involved in the formation of evaporites and phosphorites
Seawater
The best-studied meteorite in history”
Allende
A type of kerogen in which its origin is from Phytoplanktons, bacterial microorganisms in
marine sediments. It is also the most abundant.
Type II Kerogen
Why is ventilation required in underground coal mining?
Due to elevated Methane released as Coal is being mined
In the origin and maturity of kerogen and petroleum, which carbonaceous material or
hydrocarbon is typically formed last?
Graphite
Which of the following has the least favorable environment for a High Sulfidation and Low
Sulfidation deposit to occur:
Granitic intrusions
The magnitude 7.8 earthquake that occurred last February 6, 2023, took place within the
vicinity of a triple junction between which plates?
Anatolia, Arabia, and Africa plates
What is the DENR Administrative Order that lifted the ban on open-pit mining of copper, silver,
gold, and complex ores in the country, and who initially enforced the said ban?
DAO 2021-40, Gina Lopez
what are the percents of these for the slope angle ranfes acc to the DENR slope classification
0-3%
3-5%-8%
8%-18%
18%-30%
30%-50%
over 50%
level to nearly level
gently sloping to undulating
undulating to rolling
rolling to moderately steep
steep
very steep
The parent magma believed to have released the fluid that accumulated to form the copperand gold-bearing quartz body in the Didipio orebody is of what comp
Syenitic
The Board of Geology was created in accordance with the Geology Profession Law to
supervise and regulate the practice of the geology profession. The Board of Geology was first
created in the Philippines in
June 19, 1965
Most coordinate systems used in GIS software correspond to a specific code set by the
European Petroleum Survey Group for the purpose of maintaining a geodetic parameter
database. What is the EPSG code for the widely used coordinate system World Geodetic System
84 (WGS 84)?
EPSG:4326
these codes represent which
EPSG:4269
EPSG:4326
EPSG:4253
EPSG:4683
NAD83
WGS84
Luzon 1911
PRS92
What is the difference between nautical mile and statute mile?
NM is longer than SM
NM 6076 feet SM=5280 feet
what are the respective percents for the Copper percentage
bornite
chalcopyrite
covellite
chalcocite
63.3%
34.63%
66.46%
79.85%
. Bronze is an alloy of what elements?
Cu and Sn
Dubbed the “worst oil spill ever in the Philippines”, the oil tanker M/T Solar 1 sank on August
11, 2006, releasing as much as 500,000 liters of crude oil in the vicinity of the wreck. Where did
the M/T Solar 1 sink?
Guimaras Strait
An oil with an API Gravity of 22.3–31.1 is considered as
Medium oil
According to R.A. 7076, upon the declaration of a people’s small-scale mining area, the
director, in consultation with the operator, claim owner, landowner, or lessor of an affected area,
shall determine the right of the small-scale miners to existing facilities such as mining and logging
roads, private roads, port, and communication facilities. This is known as
Easement rights
what are the RQD if thes rock quality
0-25%
25-50%
50-75%
75-90%
90-100%
very poor
poor
fair
good
excellent
What deposit garnered attention and controversy due to the misrepresentation of its resource
which led to the creation of JORC?
Poseidon Nickel Deposit – Poseidon NL
. A ‘Competent Person’ must have a minimum of _____ relevant experience in the deposit style
investigated
5 years
the most effective seal rock?
Evaporites
Which formation can one find the skarns in Larap?
Universal Formation
What mine is controversial because of a massive tailings spill incident in 1996?
Marcopper Cu Mine
Diwalwal gold rush started in what decade?
1980s
what article of the GSP Code of Ethics stipulates the relation of geologists to coprofessionals?
IV
This sets out the minimum standards, recommendations, and guidelines for public reporting
in the Philippines of exploration results, mineral resources, and ore reserves.
PMRC
Which of the following uses a logarithmic scale?
Richter Scale
. These isolines in maps indicate equal gravitational acceleration
isogal
Size Hole (outside) diameter, mm Core (inside) diameter, mm
AQ
BQ
NQ
HQ
48 27
60 36.5
75.7 47.6
96 63.5
What is added to quicklime to make morta
Clay
This is used to measure the rate of change in a magnetic field.
Gradiometer
What is the test similar to the Becke Line Test but used in mineragraphy?
Kalb Light Line
The characteristic ore mineral assemblage and their sequence of formation
Paragenesis
In variograms, this represents the maximum distance at which sample pairs can be said to
have some relationship to their separation distance
range
What is the true dip of the coal seam?
11SE
At what depth would the coal be encountered in a borehole at D?
200m
Where is the type locality of the mineral Luzonite?
Mankayan, Benguet
Which of the following countries has the most REE reserves?
China
Developed just in recent years, IFSAR is a powerful approach in generating high-resolution
digital data using Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and an orthorectified radar image. IFSAR stands
for what?
Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar
correlation analysis
+- 1
+-0.81-0.99
+-0.61-+0.80
+-41-0.69
+_0.21-+-0.40
+-0.01-+-0.20
0
perfect linear relationship
very strong linear
strong linear
moderate linera
weak linear
very weak linear
no linear relationship
- As part of the application for an Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC), the Department
of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order 2000-28 requires an additional
requirement of producing an Engineering Geological and Geohazard Assessment Report
(EGGAR) covering subdivision, housing, and other land development and infrastructure projects.
Which of these events led to the creation of DAO 2000-28?
Cherry Hills Landslide in Rizal
A vector-based data structure is made for storing terrain information in digital terrain modeling
in which each sample point has an xy coordinate and a height, or z value. All the points are
connected by edges to form a network of non-overlapping triangles that collectively represent the
terrain surface. This network is known as
TIN
It is a mathematical operation defining the change of shape of a waveform resulting from its
passage through a filter.
convolution
. A correlation coefficient of ± .81 to ± 0.99 indicates _________ linear relationship
very strong
The Argyle Diamond Mine is the most significant source of pink diamonds in the world and is
located in Western Australia. The diamond deposit occurs in a ____________ pipe.
Lamproite
This surface feature is a liquefaction effect during an earthquake, characterized by fissuring
and buckling.
Lateral spreading
- Reporting of mineral resources is just one of the geologist’s roles in the profession. Which of
the following classification has the best level of geological knowledge and confidence?
Measured
In hydrogeology, this term is applied in the search for groundwater, meaning a surface of
equal fluid pressure within the rock mass
Piezometric surface
The Mining Act of _____ (Commonwealth Act 137) introduced the Regalian Doctrine (lands &
minerals owned by the state)
1935
An oxide ore was observed in a porphyry copper deposit. It is an indication that the ore is at
Upper portion of the deposit
Orebodies formed by hydrothermal fluids and gases that were introduced into the host rocks from elsewhere, filling cavities in the host rock. describes mineral deposits formed later.
Epigenetic
ore deposits formed at the same time as the enclosing rock
syngenetic
a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, with trace amounts of copper and other metals
electrum
a rare cadmium bearing metal sulfide mineral consisting of cadmium sulfide (CdS) in crystalline form. Greenockite crystallizes in the hexagonal system
Greenockite
an analytical technique used to determine how much of certain elements are in a sample. It uses the principle that atoms (and ions) can absorb light at a specific, unique wavelength. When this specific wavelength of light is provided, the energy (light) is absorbed by the atom.
a technique for measuring the concentrations of metallic elements in different materials
Atomic absorption spectroscopy
AAS
alloy of iron with chromium and nickel.
Stainless steel
can be used in solar cells, which turn light energy into electrical energy.
Ruthenium
mainly used for research purposes.
scandium
Metallurgical process for dissolution of metals by means of acid solution. Examples include extraction of copper from oxide- or sulfide-bearing ore and dissolution of uranium from sandstone ores. Acid leaching can occur on heap-leach pads or in situ.
acid leaching
A colloquial term for petroleum
black gold
mark the upper and lower limits of normal variation for a particular population of data.
threshold values,
a 2-dimensional reference surface, to convert locations
from a curved surface to a flat surface
map projection
Started in 1953, this mine is the oldest porphyry copper mining operation
in the country
Atlas (Toledo)
Which coordinates could be the approximate geographic center of the
Philippines
o 13⁰N, 122⁰E
a bulk underground mining method, which allows large low-grade deposits to be mined underground. This method involves undermining the orebody to make it collapse under its own weight into a series of chambers from which the ore extracted.
block caving
trike-slip movements along the Philippine Fault and the Digdig Fault within the Philippine Fault System.
1991 luzon earthquake
seismically active regions in the country and has active faults that include the Masbate and Sibuyan Sea Segments of the Philippine Fault (PF), and potentially active faults that include the Uson Fault and Southern Masbate Fault.
2003 masbate earthquake
the movement of one of the Philippines’ largest fault; the Philippine Fault System with the focal mechanism corresponding to strike-slip.
ragay gulf earthquake
A “blind” gold-rich copper porphyry deposit was discovered in Surigao in
2000 at
Boyon- gan and Bayugo
clay of choice for degradable sulfur fertilizer.
Bentonite
toxic elements in mining?
cadmium, arsenic, lead, and mercury.
Involves recording core recovery and rock mass defects by RQD or Rock
Quality Determination, including other information on discontinuities and
structures (fault, fractures, bedding) recorded in the core
geotechnical logging
a zone around a mineral deposit where the metal values are less than those of the deposit but significantly higher than background values found in the country rocks around the deposit
dispersion halo
mass of ore deposited in a vein. consists of the most valuable part of the ore deposit.
oreshoot
A circular or crescentic distribution pattern about the source or origin of a mineral, ore, mineral association, or petrographic feature
mineralized halo
an electrochemical effect caused by many factors, not all of which are completely understood.
chargeability
The product of conductivity and thickness, typically measured in units of siemens
conductance
an electromagnetic technique which assesses the ability of the topsoil or ploughsoil and features within it to be magnetised.
magnetic susceptibility
atoms and particles move to new locations and geochemical environment
geochemical dispersion.
an often produce a higher-grade commodity
deep narrow veins mining
A method of mining in which large quantities of low-grade ore are mined without attempt to segregate the high-grade portions.
bulk mineable
type of alteration system that has undergone advanced argillic and argillic alteration and is mainly composed of acid-sulfate alteration minerals characterized by alunite–kaolinite–dickite–quartz ± pyrite
lithocap
non-ferromagnesian minerals.
Muscovite, Potassium Feldspar (Orthoclase), and Quartz:
Fresh water -
Slightly saline water - Moderately saline
water -
Less than 1,000 ppm.
From 1,000 ppm to 3,000 ppm.
From 3,000 ppm to 10,000 ppm.
This is a method of recovering gold and silver from pregnant cyanide
solutions by adsorbing the precious metals to granules of activated
carbon
activated carbon adsorption.
anging between 1 and 4 μm.
Microcrystalline calcite, with a grain size finer than 4 μm;
Micrite,
Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.1 mm (0.79 to 3.94 mils)
sparry calcite or sparite.
a pluton of igneous rock parallel to the bedding plane or foliation of folded country rock. More specifically, it is a typically lens-shaped pluton that occupies either the crest of an anticline or the trough of a syncline.
phacolith
geological structure consisting of mobile material that was forced into more brittle surrounding rocks, usually by the upward flow of material from a parent stratum.
diapir
a type of limestone that is composed of predominantly, more than 50 percent, of either clay-size or both silt-size and clay-size detrital (transported) carbonate grains.
calcilutile
a ferro magnesian phyllosilicate mineral occurs as secondary in high temperature alteration zones in potassic altered porphyry copper deposits
biotite
cryptocrystalline masses of apatite in phosphorite rich sed rock
referred to
collophane
the sequence in which the minerals are formed in an ore deposit.
paragenesis
Applied to dark-colored rocks, esp. igneous rocks, containing between 60% and 100% dark minerals;
melanochractic
light-coloured because of a low content of ferromagnesian minerals.
leucocratic
Neither leucocratic nor melanocratic; having a more or less even mixture of light and dark constituents.
mesocratic
Bentonite clay is used as drilling mud, and mainly contains the mineral
60-80% of montmorillonite.
The volcanic equivalent of an ultramafic rock
komatiite and picritic basalt
most common titanium mineral?
Ilmenite
minerals display one direction of well developed
cleavage
Biotite
texture that is locally found in sphalerite in which unevenly distributed, variably sized blebs of chalcopyrite occur throughout a grain of sphalerite
Chalcopyrite disease
A rock that is a mixture of metamorphic rock and igneous rock
migmatite
If vesicles are so abundant that they make up over 50% of the rock and
the rock has a density greater than 1, then the rock is said to be
scoraceous.
Where can a kelyphitic rim be found?
Where can a kelyphitic rim be found?
Nacre is the layers of which a pearl is made of. What mineral is it
aragonite
coarse crystalline calcite cement which fills pore spaces in many limestones after deposition, formed by the precipitation of calcite from carbonate-rich solutions passing through the pore spaces in the sediment
sparite
The “alkaline” rocks typically are chemically undersaturated with respect
to
silica
What was the name of the geoloist who first introduced the concept of
metamorphic facies?
Eskola
When substantial chemical change accompanies metamorphism also called allochemical metamorphism
metasomatism’
The term lamination is used for what thickness of bed?
less than 1cm
the association of lath-shaped euhedral crystals of plagioclase, grouped radially or in an irregular mesh, with surrounding or interstitial large anhedral crystals of pyroxene;
ophitic texture
refers to crystals, typically phenocrysts, in an igneous rock which contain small grains of other minerals.
poikilitic
a texture of extrusive rocks in which the groundmass contains little volcanic glass and consists predominantly of minute tabular crystals, namely, sanidine microlites
trachytic
What is measured by a goniometer?
interfacial angle
a mineral deposit of gravel, sand, and nitrates, found especially in dry areas of South America
caliche
very young soils with weak horizon differentiation;
Fluvisols
determine the ages of formation and thermal histories of potassium-bearing rocks and minerals of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary origin, as well as extraterrestrial meteorites and lunar rocks
K-Ar method
a scientific method that can accurately determine the age of organic materials as old as approximately 60,000 years.
carbon 14 dating
one of the oldest and most refined of the radiometric dating schemes.
u-pb method
The long-term accumulation of sediment in a channel and the readjustment of the stream profile where there is a vertical growth of the land surface is called
Aggradation
Removal of dissolved or suspended material from a layer or layers of the soil by the movement of water when rainfall exceeds evaporation.
eluviation
The first fishes had no jaws, bones, only cartilages. Their
name means “shell-skins”, and these were called
ostracoderms
The horizontal component or amount of dip separation,
perpendicular to the strike of the fault
Heave
Element with an affinity for silicate phases
Lithophile elements
“iron-loving”
siderophile
found in, attracted to, or having a tendency to occur in the atmosphere. used especially of chemical elements or compounds.
atmophile
This scientist discovered the P’ discontinuity, or the Pwave deflections at inner-outer core boundary
Inge Lehmann
This
biozone type is a body of fossiliferous strata between
two specified biostratigraphic horizons
Interval zones
The body of strata representing the known stratigraphic and geographic range of occurrence of a particular taxon or combination of two taxa of any rank.
Range Zone
named for the taxon in the lineage whose range or partial range it represents
A lineage zone
defined by the biohorizons across which there is notable change in the abundance of the specified taxon or taxa that characterize the zone.
abundacne zone
The Indo-Australian plate is presently subducting under
the Eurasian Plate along the trench in Indonesia
Sumatra
The study of trace fossils
ichnology
branch of paleontology that deals with the processes of fossilization.
taphonomy
the practice and science of categorization or classification.
taxonomy
Lineated fault surfaces that have been polished by the
process of frictional sliding
Slickensides
a series of relatively small, alternating, interlocked, toothlike columns of stone;
stylolite
an imaginary sea level surface that undulates (has a wavy surface) over all of the earth; i
geoid
Materials, especially rock masses, that formed in their present location and have not been transported. Fault surfaces can separate indigenous rocks from allochthonous rocks, although some allochthonous rocks are clearly delineated by their differing composition.
authochthonous
convex upward ontaining progressively younger rocks from their core outwards are anticlines has a crest, which is the highest point on a given stratum along the top of the fold.
antiform
objects have been displaced from their original site of origin
Allochthonous
sediment of which at least 30 percent is composed of the skeletal remains of microscopic floating organisms. deposits of soft mud on the ocean floor.
ooze, pelagic
the steepest line that can be drawn on an inclined plane. Measured in terms of inclination (from the horizontal) and its bearing (from north), and when used in conjunction with unit length it can be considered a vector quantity. The azimuth of the dip is at right angles to the strike of a bed.
true dip
the angle between the horizontal and a planar or tabular geologic feature such as a bed, fault or vein as seen in a structure section. When the section is per- pendicular to the strike, apparent dip equals true dip;
apparent dip
Which sedimentary basin is bounded by the Luzon
Central Cordillera and the Sierra Madre Ranges
Cagayan
What type of coastline is formed during sea level rise
Submergent coastlines
This Plio-Pleistocene Philippine fossil is considered to be
a sister group of the mammoth and elephants
Stegodon
The opening and closing of ocean basins through plate
tectonics
Wilson Cycle
A statement of elastic deformation, that strain is directly
proportional to stress
Hooke’s law
The Palawan micro-continent collided with the Philippine
Mobile Belt during the
late Early Miocene to early Middle Miocene age (20-16 Ma)
A tectonic process by which material is added to a
tectonic plate or a landmass
Accretion
an act or instance of placing two elements close together or side by side
Juxtaposition
The sediment that a stream moves along the bottom of
its channel by rolling and bouncing
Bedload
The first period (542 to 488.3 Ma) of the Paleozoic Era,
during which most modern animal phyla developed
Cambrian Explosion of Animal Life
Which of the following rocks could least or not preserve
fossils
sandstone
Which rock formations could you find stream water that is considered “hard water”
limestone
Which major plate consists entirely of oceanic
lithosphere
Pacific
In geologic time, when could be the beginning of the
Phanerozoic Eon
541
dinosaurs diversified
and the first birds appeared
Late Cretaceous
A basin that forms on the side of a volcanic arc away
from the trench
back arc
Zone of saturation; area in aquifer, below the water
table, which relatively pores/fractures are water
saturated
phreatic zone, saturated zone, or zone of saturation
The dome-shaped top of an igneous intrusion
cupola
The lowest point of a ridge connecting two mountain
peaks, often constituting a pass or a saddle
col
The angle that a bedding plane or fault makes with the
horizontal
dip
provides a direction given as the primary compass direction (north or south), degree of angle, and an east or west designation. A bearing describes a line as heading north or south, and deflected some number of degrees toward the east or west.
bearing
the angle between North, measured clockwise around the observer’s horizon, and a celestial body (sun, moon)
azimuth
also termed the unsaturated zone, is the part of Earth between the land surface and the top of the phreatic zone, the position at which the groundwater is at atmospheric pressure
vadose
The stress exerted by the water present in the soil pores
pore water pressure
energy per unit weight of fluid is termed as
head
common mineral that replaces organic substances in fossil formation
SiO2
niagara falls has a limestone cap underlaid by
granite
feature below that is most useful in indicating the direction of movement of continental glacier
drumlin
sinkhole lakes would be found most readily in?
florida
the most recent covering of New England by continental glaciers ended at a time closes to which one of the following
10,000 BC
earliest deposits of graphite left by simple forms of life resulted from such life in
archeozoic
the study of radioactive minerals shows the earth to have a minimum age in years closest to
5,000,000,000
minimum average monthly temperature required for a zone to be considered tropical
64 degrees Farenheit
information about auroras
occur near the poles only
are caused by ionization of oxygen and nitrogen in the upper air
at their brightest during maximum sunspot activity
closest distance in miles from the Earth to the moon
2.5 x 10 ^5
a plane on a great circe route
a meridian
not truly described by its name
sea
boothbay maine is charac by
long narrow bays
deflecting force of ferell cell is greatest at what
80 degrees N
one known 20th century for its most violently explosive type of eruption
mt.pelee martinique
star nearest to the sun is in the constellation
centaurus
summer solstice the vertical rays of the sun at noon are on the
tropic of cancer
a mature river will become intrenched when the area in which it is located is
elevated
gently undulating, almost featureless plain that, in principle, would be produced by fluvial erosion that would, in the course of geologic time, reduce the land almost to baselevel (sea level), leaving so little gradient that essentially no more erosion could occur.
peneplain,
fall lines cities are located where rivers flow from the rocks of
older Appalachians to those of the coastal plain
most cenozoic mammal fossils were preserved by
burail after drowning or suffocation
skull of pithecanthroupus erectus differs from other ape why?
lack of median crest
one in which the greatest variety of species is found in
cenozoic protozoa
the triangulation point on a tropographic map
true elevation
a heavy black line on a geologic map with the letters U and D appearing on opposite sides of the line
fault
the symbol T 30 indicates
dip E-W strike 30 degrees N
a sequence of sedimentary rock layers that progress from deep-water and turbidity flow deposits to shallow-water shales and sandstones. It is deposited when a deep basin forms rapidly on the continental side of a mountain building episode.
consists of repeated sedimentary cycles with upwards fining of the sediments. There are sometimes coarse conglomerates or breccias at the bottom of each cycle, which gradually evolve upwards into sandstone and shale/mudstone. ypically deposited during an early stage of the orogenesis. When the orogen evolves, the foreland basin becomes shallower and molasse is deposited on top of the flysch.
Flysch
These deposits are typically the non-marine alluvial and fluvial sediments of lowlands, as compared to deep-water flysch sediments.
Flysch and Molasse
refers to sandstones, shales and conglomerates that form as terrestrial or shallow marine deposits in front of rising mountain chains. The molasse deposits accumulate in a foreland basin, especially on top of flysch-like deposits.
“molasse”
semi-precious stones include
ambales Jade” (uvarovite) and mauve, “Mindoro Jade” (sericite schists), minor floats of jadeite and nephrite, jasper/chert, serpentine, spinel, garnet, quartz, epidote, obsidian, bloodstone, agate, opal, tektite, azurite, malachite, amber, corals, and pearl considered as the National Gem of the Philippines.
s a reaction where a solid phase and liquid phase will together form a second solid phase at a particular temperature and composition
Peritectic
ormed by self-generated alteration of a granite and is a class of endoskarn; It means that greisen in most cases formed inside the granitic pluton itself that provided heat and hydrothermal fluids to initiate the greisenization.
commonly, are granitoid rocks in which >90% of the feldspar is replaced by quartz, mica, topaz, cassiterite and other minerals.
Commonly hosts workable - though not always currently economic - Sn - W - Mo ore bodies
Greisen
Some deposits of these semi-precious stones are in:
Sta. Cruz, Zambales; Sta. Cruz, Occidental Mindoro; San Vicente- Mabini-Dasol, Pangasinan; Burgos, Ilocos Norte; Paracale, Camarines Norte; and Nagcarlan, Laguna.
what are the zeolite minerals
natrolite
analcime
laumontite
chabazite
clinoptilolite
heulandite
stilbite
sodalite
what are under incohesive non-foliated and foliated
non-foliated: fault breccia >30%visible fragments
fault gouge <30% visible fragments
foliated
foliated gouge
equant with a nearly square cross sections halite galena
blocky
what are under the cohesive non foliated
pseudotachylyte
crush breccia- fragments>5mm
fine crush breccia- fragmants 1-5mm
crush microbreccia fragments <1mm
catacalsites grain size reduction by cataclastic mechanisms
protocataclasite
cataclasite
ultracataclasite
under cohesive foliated
mylonite series
grain size reduction by plastic def mechanism
protomylonite
mylonite
ultramylonite
grain size increase by recrystallize
blastomylonite
Microcrystalline rocks of granitic composition
Felsite
gneous rock texture in which an intergrowth of two minerals has the appearance of runic writing. Graphic textures are most commonly intergrowths of quartz and alkali feldspar in which the quartz appears as v-shaped inclusions enclosed by the feldspar.
Graphic Granite
An opaline sinter that is often found around hot springs and geysers. A botryoidal form is called fiorite.
Geyserite
form from waters that separate from a magma in the late stages of crystallization; this activity often occurs in small pockets along the margins of a batholith. Pegmatite can also form in fractures that develop on the margins of the batholith.
Pegmatites
also made of silica, but tufa and travertine are made of calcium carbonate.
Diatomite
general term for sandstone. It is equivalent to the Latin-derived term arenite and is commonly used in various publications to describe a metamorphosed sedimentary rock with a dominantly sandstone protolith
Psammite
coarse gravel
medium sand
fine clay
psephite rudite
psammite arenite
pelite lutite
a=b=c all angles 90 degrees
cubic fluorite
a=b not equal to c
all angles at 90
tetragonal rutile
a=b not equal to c
angles 120 or 90
hexagonal beryl
abc all not equal all angles 90
orthorhombic
enstatite
all abc not equal
a=y=90
beta not equal 90
monoclinic sanidine
abc not equal and no angles 90
triclinic albite
along with minerals of the melilite group, are referred to as foids in the IUGS classification of igneous rocks. They do not occur in igneous rocks containing original free silica. They are, in fact, incompatible with quartz, as is quite apparent from the following equations:
nepheline +quartz=albite and leucite+ quartz= k felds
Feldspathoids
A coarse-grained crystalline rock consisting mostly of calcic plagioclase (>90%, usually labradorite) with <10% mafics. The lunar highlands are composed predominantly
Anorthosite
Because of linguistic similarities some people think that anorthosite is a rock composed of anorthite (one of plagioclase group minerals). This is not true. Anorthosite is usually composed of labradorite and sometimes bytownite or andesine as well (all plagioclase group minerals).
main factor that detemines the texture of an igneous rock is
cooling rate dT/dt
rate at which atoms or molecules can move through the liquid
diffusion rate
rate at which enough of the chemicla constituents of a crystal can come together in one place w/o dissolving
rate of nucleation of new crystals
the rate at which new constituents can arrive at the surface of the growing crystals depends largely on the diffusion rate of the molecules of concern
rate of growth of crystals
small degrees undercooling the nucleation rate will be low and growth rate moderate since few nuclei
phaneritic texture
larger degrees of undercoolingnucleation rate will be high and the growth rate also high
aphanitic
hugh degrees of undercooling both the growth rate and nucleation rate will be low few crystals will form and they will not grow to any large size= glassy
holohyaline texture
small holes left behind after lava cools and turns into volcanic rock. help geologists understand the cooling history of extrusive (volcanic rocks) because lava contains large amounts of dissolved gases that are released as the lava hardens.
vesicular
if phenocrysts are found to occur as clusters of crystals then the rock should be described as glomeroporphyritic instead of porphyritic
glomeroporphyritic
if vesicles have been filled with material usually calcite chalcedonyor quartz then the term amygdularshould be added to the textureal desciption of the rock defined as a refilled vesicle
amygdular
vesicles are so abundant that they make up over 50% of the rock and the rock has a density less than 1 would float inwwater then the rock is
pumiceous
vesicles are so abundant that they make up over 50% of the rock and the rock has a density greater than 1 then the rock is
scoraceous
texture consisting of intergrowths of quartz and alkali feldspar wherein the orientation of the quartz grains resembles cuneiform writing most observed in pegmatites
graphic
texture commonly found in glassy rhyolites wherein spherical intergrowths of radiating quartz and feldspar replace glass as a result of devritification
spherulitic
texture usually restricted to coarser grained rocks that consists of concentrically banded spheres wherein the bands consist of alternation light colored and dark colored minerals
obicular
fine
medium
coarse
very coarse
<1mm diameter <sugar granules
1-5mm diameter (sugar to pea sized)
5-50mm diameter
>50 mm diameter lower size limit is not really well defined
When basaltic lava flows enter standing water, they form either tongues or more
equidimensional blob-like structures, both of which are called pillows. The resulting pillow
lavas contain numerous packed pillows, usually with glassy rinds, concentric
bands, and radial fractures within. Later pillows commonly flatten and conform to the shape of
the pillows upon which they settle, providing geologists with a method of determining the
original top of the deposit in folded terranes. The
hyaloclastite commonly devitrifies quickly to an orangish- brown material called
Palagonite
The pillows may be embedded in fine glassy debris
called
hyaloclastite
0.25-2.5km diameter
scoria cone
0.2-3.0km diameter
maar
0.2-3.0km diameter
tuff ring
0.1-1.5 km diameter
tuff cone
eskola proposed this diagram a way to illustrate metamorphic mineral assemblages on a simplified 3-componetn triangular diagram. He concentrated only on the minerals that appeared or disappeared during metamorphism thus acting as indicators of metamorphic minerals
ACF Diagram
the norm is a method of recalculating a chemical analysis of an igneous rock into a set of ideal minerals. the norm was originally proposed as a method of classifying igneous rocks but the classification has since given way to drect chemical classifications. the norm is still used by some petrologists and it is most useful for volcanic or glassy rocks where the modal mineralogy is unavailbel. in the US commonl use formaulation developed by COPW which expresses the normative mienrals as weight percentages. the method descrived here is a simplication norm which expresses the normative minerasl as molecular percentages. the following mid ridge ocean basalt analysis will be usead as an illustration of the techniqua.
CIPW cross iddings pirsson and washington
a hypothesis-testing paradigm for the evaluation of rock geochemistry, and generally provides an understanding of the nature and extent of material transfer that has taken place in a suite of rocks.
Pearce element ratio (PER)
zeolites especially laumontite,wairakite,analcime in place of other Ca-Al silicates such as phrenite,pumpellyite,and epidote
zeolite
phrenite,pumpellyite, +chlorite + albite
phrenite,pumpellyite,
chlorite+albite+epidote(zoisite) +actinolite+quartz
greenschist
hornblende+plagioclase (oligoclase,andesine)+garnet
amphibolite
orthopyrozene+clinopyroxene+plag+garnet
granulite
glaucophane+lawsonite or epidote/zoisoite+ albite +chlorite+garnet
blueschist
pyralpsite garnet+omphacitic pyroxene+kyanite+quartz no plagioclase
eclogite
mineral assembalges in mafic rocks of the facies of contact metamorphism do not differ substantially from those of the corresponfing regional at higher pressure
contact facies
very low pressures
contact facies
low pressure regional
buchan or abukuma facies
medium pressure regional
barrovian facies
high pressure moderate temperature
sanbagawa facies
high pressure moderate temperature
franciscan facies
which one large crystal encloses many smaller crystals similar to ophitic textures but the enclosing mineral need no be pyrozene greenvile maine
6mm
poikilitic texture
quartz wedge
530 nm plate 1/4 plate
acute bisectriz is Z
positive
acute bisectrix is X
negative
angle between the optic axes bisected by the X axis as 2Vx and the angle between the optic axes bisected by the Z axis as 2Vz the angles then can vary between 0 and 180 degrees with restrcition that 2Vx+2Vz=180
if 2V is exactly 90 then neutral
2V <90, 2Vx>90
positive
2V>90, 2V<90
negative
a property closely related to crystal shape, includes shape and size of crystal faces, how forms combine, how well developed different forms are, and the way multiple crystals grow together. Habit, thus, is the characteristic appearance a mineral can have. The photos in Figure 3.16 show some contrasting examples.
The most useful terms describing habit are self-explanatory. Common ones used to describe the habit of single crystals include equant (equidimensional), acicular (needlelike), tabular, and bladed. These and other terms are defined below.
habit
shows orange chabazite crystals on top of heulandite. Both of these are zeolite minerals that occur most commonly in openings within basalt, and less commonly in metamorphic rocks or hydrothermal veins. This sample comes from a classic locality near Wasson Bluff, on the shore of the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, where many outcrops of 200-million year old basalt contain cavities filled with spectacular mineral specimens.
Although zeolites are best known for their occurrences in vugs and other open cavities in volcanic rocks, large volumes are found in volcanic ashes and saline lake deposits. Zeolites also may be present as products of diagenesis or low-grade metamorphism in sediments and rocks.
he zeolite group includes more than 40 minerals. They are, essentially, hydrated feldspars and are framework silicates containing open cavities that can hold loosely bonded large cations and water. The best-known use for zeolites is in water softeners. Because calcium in water causes it to be hard, suppressing the effects of soap, forming scale, or creating other problems, it is often filtered through zeolite. Zeolite charged with sodium ions (generally from dissolved salt) allows water to pass through its structure while exchanging calcium for sodium, thus making the water less hard. This process is reversible, so the zeolite can be flushed and used again.
s a triclinic K-feldspar and has a characteristic cross-hatched tartan pattern of twinning seen with a petrographic microscope ad ample amount of time to cool down .
Microcline
re both optically monoclinic K-feldspars. Sanidine occurs in volcanic and subvolcanic rocks. Orthoclase occurs in plutonic rocks.
Orthoclase and sanidine
is a K-feldspar produced by low-temperature hydrothermal (veins) or authigenic processes. It is structurally similar to microcline but without the cross-hatched twinning. Low-temperature feldspars either crystallized at lower temperatures
Adularia
the only alkali feldspar that is not K-feldspar. It is sodic in composition, optically triclinic and characterized by a twinning similar to microcline but on a smaller scale.
Anorthoclase
igh temperature ordering because the cooling is very rapid
sanidine
ault-related rock that maintained primary cohesion during deformation, with matrix comprising greater than 10 % of rock mass; matrix is fine-grained material formed through grain size reduction. Cataclasites are subdivided into those that have 10-50% matrix (protocataclasite), 50-90% matrix (cataclasite) and > 90% matrix (ultracataclasite).
Cataclasite
are usually found in faults, which have been active at shallow crustal levels. They occur in fault zones of variable thickness and can be subdivided into
Incohesive brittle fault rocks
n unconsolidated fault rock consisting of less than 30% matrix. If the matrix fragment ratio is higher, the rock is called a fault gouge. A fault gouge is thus a strongly ground-down version of the original rock. These unconsolidated fault rocks form in the upper part of the brittle crust. They are conduits of fluid flow in non-porous rocks but contribute to fault sealing in faulted porous rocks.
Fault breccia
an be subdivided into cohesive breccia, cohesive cataclasite and pseudotachylyte. Cohesive cataclasite and breccia commonly show evidence for abundant pressure solution and precipitation effects. Rock fragments are transected by healed cracks aligned with fluid inclusions. Veins of quartz, calcite, epidote or chlorite, and in ultramafic rocks, serpentine, are common. These veins form during and after brittle deformation, since they have commonly been fractured.
Cohesive fault rocks
oldest microscope national optics
then leica then recent is nikon
Nikon microscope (as well as the Leica microscope) also have digital cameras attached to them, making them larger. The Nikon camera system includes the box sitting on the table to the right of the microscope.
These examples of National and Leica microscopes are student microscopes. The Nikon microscope shown here is a research-grade microscope. Please note that these companies each make different types and grades of microscopes: these are simply the examples we had at hand!
s a steady light source that is located in the base of the microscope. It is used for transmitted light microscopy.
The switch to turn on the illuminator is typically located at the rear or on the side of the base of the microscope. When the illuminator is ON, light will be visible through the base in the microscope. The following video clips show examples of turning on the illuminator for different microscopes:
illuminator
The parts of the microscope that are located above the base but below the stage are called the
substage assembly. The substage assembly includes the condenser, the lower polarizer, light filters, and diaphragms.
consists of two or more lenses that focus the illuminator light onto the sample placed on the stage, and one or more apertures to control illumination (see below). The condenser should be adjusted each time the objective lens is changed to maximize the quality of the image
condenser
alogen lights used in microscopes typically give off a yellowish light, so a blue filter is often added to compensate for the yellow color of the light, providing a truer white light to pass through the sample.
A diaphragm or aperture cuts down the amount of light that reaches the sample by restricting the area that light can pass through. There are often multiple apertures on a microscope (Figure 2.4.5), including an aperture as part of the condenser assembly, as well as a field diaphragm that controls the size of the area which is illuminated on a sample
The mechanical stage is an accessory which can be attached to the top of the rotating stage. Rather than a rotating motion, it allows motion along the x-axis (left-right) and y-axis (top-bottom). In Figure 2.4.10, the gold knob at the top controls motion in the x direction, and the gold knob on the right controls the y direction motion. The pincer-like arms (bottom left) wrap around the thin section and hold it in place.
Most polarizing light microscopes have two focusing knobs on each side of the microscope. The coarse focus is used to rapidly change the level of the stage and sample, and the fine focus knob is used to gently bring a sample into complete focus.
Objectives are the main (but usually not the only) magnification mechanism in the microscope. Magnifications typically range from about 4x-64x, although objectives as low as 2.5x and as high as 200x are available. Because most polarizing light microscopes are compound microscopes containing more than one lens, the total magnification can be much higher (see the oculars section below).
The Amici-Bertrand lens (or simply the Bertrand lens) changes the plane of focus so that the viewer can observe interference figures
he 1/4λ plate can also be called a mica plate, glimmer plate, or 147 nm.
yea
Common Fluorescent Minerals
Over 500 minerals have been discovered that exhibit some sort of fluorescence when exposed to ultra violet light. What follows, is a collection of some of the more common and/or well-known fluorescent minerals. Importantly, not all specimens of these minerals will fluoresce, as minerals typically require an ion actuator to glow.
fluorite fluorospar
calcite
agrellite
apatite
aragonite
baryte
cerussite
Chalcedony
Corundum
Esperite
Hardystonite
Hyalite
Hydrozincite
Opal
Pyromorphite
Scapolite
Scheelite TUNSTEN
Selenite HOURGLASS
Smithsonite
Sodalite
Sphalerite
Tremolite
Tugtupite
Willemite
Wollastonite
Caliche
lectron returns to its ground state (where it started) and releases the amount of energy it absorbed (thus returns light with that wavelength to the spectrum, thus, no color….
luminescence
If some of the adsorbed energy is lost but the reminder is returned to the visible spectrum, the light returned has lower energy and thus, different color. [changes in energy = changes in wavelength = changes in color].
fluorescence
are elements (e.g., Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu…) that are not present in the pure compound. Impurities are elements that occur in low concentration in the gemstone.
Impurities
Beryl containing iron (Fe):
Aquamarine = Fe++, beryl is blue
Heliodor = Fe+++, yellow
Green beryl : due to mixtures of Fe2+ and Fe3+
Beryl containing Manganese(Mn):
Morganite : Mn++ is pink
Red beryl : Mn+++ is red
Beryl containing Chromium(Cr):
Emerald = emerald green : Cr+++
