neurological and endocrine disorders Flashcards
What does CVA stand for?
Cerebrovascular Accident
What is the leading risk factor for stroke?
Hypertension
List three other risk factors for stroke.
- Atherosclerosis
- Heart disease
- Diabetes
What are the two main types of stroke?
- Ischemic stroke
- Hemorrhagic stroke
What is an ischemic stroke?
A stroke caused by blockage in a cerebral artery due to a blood clot.
What is a transient ischemic stroke (TIA)?
A blockage of an artery for less than five minutes causing temporary symptoms.
What are the symptoms of a stroke involving the middle cerebral artery?
- Contralateral sensory loss
- Contralateral hemiparesis or hemiplegia
- Contralateral homonymous hemianopsia
- Dysarthria
- Aphasia or apraxia
What type of brain injury is a TBI?
Traumatic Brain Injury
What distinguishes open head injuries from closed head injuries?
Open head injuries penetrate the skull, while closed head injuries do not.
What is anterograde amnesia?
Loss of the ability to create new memories after the event causing the amnesia.
What is the primary motor symptom of Huntington’s disease?
Chorea
What gene is responsible for Huntington’s disease?
Mutated version of the huntingtin (HTT) gene on chromosome 4.
What is the typical age range for the onset of symptoms in Huntington’s disease?
Between 30 and 50 years of age.
What neurotransmitters are associated with Huntington’s disease?
- GABA
- Dopamine
- Glutamate
What are the four primary motor symptoms of Parkinson’s disease?
- Tremor at rest
- Impaired balance and coordination
- Rigidity
- Bradykinesia
What is the first-line medication for Parkinson’s disease?
Levodopa
What is deep brain stimulation (DBS)?
A surgical treatment involving implanting electrodes to deliver electrical impulses to target areas in the brain.
True or False: There is a cure for Huntington’s disease.
False
Fill in the blank: A traumatic brain injury may produce a loss of _______.
consciousness
What are common cognitive symptoms of TBI?
- Anterograde amnesia
- Retrograde amnesia
- Impaired concentration and judgment
What is the expected prognosis for recovery from TBI?
Most recovery occurs in the first three months, with further improvement in the first year.
What is the primary treatment goal for Parkinson’s disease?
To relieve symptoms and improve quality of life.
What are post-traumatic seizures (PTS)?
Seizures that occur within one week after TBI.
What distinguishes post-traumatic epilepsy (PTE) from PTS?
PTE occurs more than one week after TBI.
What symptoms may precede motor symptoms in Parkinson’s disease?
Depressive symptoms
What is a seizure?
A seizure is a transient physical or behavioral alteration that results from abnormal electrical activity in the brain.
What are the two main types of seizures?
Focal onset seizures and generalized onset seizures.
What are provoked seizures?
Provoked seizures have a known cause, such as traumatic brain injury, CNS infection, stroke, fever, or alcohol withdrawal.
What are unprovoked seizures?
Unprovoked seizures occur without a known cause.
What condition may be diagnosed with recurrent and unprovoked seizures?
Epilepsy.
Define focal onset seizures.
Focal onset seizures begin in a localized area in one cerebral hemisphere and affect one side of the body.
What are focal onset aware seizures also known as?
Simple partial seizures.
What are focal onset impaired awareness seizures also known as?
Complex partial seizures.
What are the common symptoms of temporal lobe seizures?
Sweating, dilated pupils, tachycardia, lip-smacking, repeated chewing, fidgeting, and trouble speaking.
What are some causes of temporal lobe seizures?
Genetic factors, traumatic brain injury, brain tumors, infections, cerebrovascular accidents, and psychological stress.
What symptoms characterize frontal lobe seizures?
Kicking, rocking, bicycle pedaling, abnormal body posturing, explosive screams or laughter, and trouble speaking.
What symptoms are associated with parietal lobe seizures?
Tingling, numbness, pain, feelings of movement, and distortions in body image.
What are the main characteristics of occipital lobe seizures?
Rapid eye blinking, eyelid flutter, visual hallucinations, and visual impairment.
What are generalized onset motor seizures also known as?
Tonic-clonic seizures or grand mal seizures.
What phases make up generalized onset motor seizures?
Tonic phase (stiffening of muscles) followed by clonic phase (jerky rhythmic movements).
What are generalized onset non-motor seizures also known as?
Absence seizures or petit mal seizures.
What defines status epilepticus (SE)?
A single seizure lasting 5 minutes or more, or recurrent seizures without a return to consciousness.
What are the two main types of status epilepticus?
Generalized convulsive SE and non-convulsive SE.
What characterizes generalized convulsive SE?
Loss of consciousness and tonic-clonic seizures.
What characterizes non-convulsive SE?
Seizure activity apparent on EEG without prominent motor symptoms.
What are common causes of status epilepticus?
Head trauma, CNS infections, cerebrovascular accidents, drug toxicity, autoimmune disorders, and non-compliance with medications.
What is the first-line treatment for status epilepticus?
Benzodiazepines.
What are migraine headaches characterized by?
Intense, throbbing pain usually on one side of the head, nausea or vomiting, and sensitivity to light.
What are the two types of migraine headaches?
Migraine headaches with aura (classic migraines) and migraine headaches without aura (common migraines).
What factors can trigger migraines?
Emotional stress, abrupt weather changes, alcohol, certain foods, and missing a meal.
What is primary hypertension also known as?
Essential hypertension.
What are the risk factors for primary hypertension?
Obesity, tobacco use, excessive salt intake, stress, male gender, older age, African American race, and family history.
What is the treatment emphasis for hypertension?
Lifestyle changes, diuretics, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, and relaxation training.
What is hyperthyroidism?
Hyperthyroidism is caused by hypersecretion of thyroid hormones and results in an increased rate of metabolism, elevated body temperature, and heat intolerance
Symptoms also include increased appetite with weight loss, accelerated heart rate, insomnia, emotional lability, and reduced attention span.
What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism?
Symptoms of hypothyroidism include:
* Decreased rate of metabolism
* Reduced appetite with weight gain
* Slowed heart rate
* Lowered body temperature
* Cold intolerance
* Depression
* Lethargy
* Decreased libido
* Confusion
* Impaired concentration and memory
Hypothyroidism is caused by hyposecretion of thyroid hormones.
What hormone does the pituitary gland release that regulates water excretion?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin
ADH regulates the amount of water excreted in the urine.
What condition is caused by low levels of ADH?
Central diabetes insipidus
Symptoms include frequent and excessive urination, extreme thirst, dehydration, constipation, weight loss, and low blood pressure.
What are the symptoms of hypoglycemia?
Symptoms of hypoglycemia include:
* Nervousness
* Shaking
* Sweating
* Hunger
* Dizziness
* Irritability
* Confusion
* Weakness
* Sleepiness
* Pallor
* Blurred vision
* Tingling or numb lips and tongue
* Headaches
* Fast or irregular heartbeat
* Clumsiness
* Seizures
* Loss of consciousness
Hypoglycemia can be caused by too much insulin, skipping meals, excessive alcohol, and other factors.
What causes diabetes mellitus?
Diabetes mellitus is caused by the pancreas releasing too little insulin or the body being unable to use the insulin produced
This results in increased blood glucose levels.
What is Type 1 diabetes?
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that destroys insulin-producing cells in the pancreas
Genetic predisposition is a primary risk factor, and the autoimmune response can be triggered by viral infections.
What are the risk factors for Type 2 diabetes?
Risk factors for Type 2 diabetes include:
* Genetic predisposition
* Being overweight
* Sedentary lifestyle
* Being over 45 years of age
* Certain racial/ethnic groups (Native Americans, African Americans, Hispanic/Latino Americans)
Type 2 diabetes is the more common type of diabetes.
What are common symptoms of both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes?
Common symptoms include:
* Extreme hunger and thirst
* Frequent urination
* Unexplained weight loss
* Fatigue
* Blurred vision
* Numbness or tingling in hands or feet
* Frequent infections
These symptoms arise from the body’s inability to properly regulate blood glucose levels.
What is the purpose of electroencephalography (EEG)?
EEG measures electrical impulses used by neurons to communicate, assessing brain activity and identifying changes in response to stimuli
It assists with the diagnosis of seizure disorders, brain injuries, tumors, and sleep disorders.
What are structural neuroimaging techniques?
Structural neuroimaging techniques include:
* Computed axial tomography (CT scan)
* Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
* Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
These techniques identify structural changes in the brain.
What is a disadvantage of CT scans?
CT scans expose patients to ionizing radiation (x-rays)
However, they are quicker and less expensive than MRIs.
What is an advantage of MRI over CT scans?
MRI produces more detailed, three-dimensional images of brain structures
This allows for detection of microhemorrhages, contusions, and gliosis not visible on CT.
What is diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) used for?
DTI assesses the structural integrity of white matter tracts in the brain
It identifies abnormalities in the diffusion of water molecules along axons.
What do functional neuroimaging techniques assess?
Functional techniques assess brain activity by measuring glucose or oxygen consumption
Examples include PET, SPECT, and functional MRI (fMRI).
True or False: Neuroimaging techniques can accurately diagnose Alzheimer’s disease.
False
Neuroimaging techniques are not sufficiently accurate for diagnosing Alzheimer’s but can help rule out other causes of cognitive impairment.
What technique is usually preferred for measuring brain volume in neurocognitive disorders?
MRI is usually preferred over CT for measuring brain volume
This is because MRI provides an accurate three-dimensional measure.
What does fluorodeoxyglucose PET (FDG-PET) assess?
FDG-PET assesses glucose metabolism in the brain
It is useful for distinguishing between Alzheimer’s disease and other neurocognitive disorders, especially frontotemporal neurocognitive disorder.
