growth and lifespan: lost in New York Flashcards
What is attachment?
The strong, affectionate tie that humans have with special people in their lives, leading to pleasure in interactions and comfort in times of stress.
(Berk, 2013, p. 428)
What did Harlow and Zimmerman (1959) conclude about infant attachment?
Contact comfort is an important contributor to an infant’s attachment to caregivers.
What is Bowlby’s (1969) ethological theory of attachment?
Infants and their mothers are biologically predisposed to form an attachment to ensure the infant’s survival.
What are the innate attachment-related behaviors of infants according to Bowlby?
- Sucking
- Crying
- Smiling
- Cooing
What are the four stages of attachment identified by Bowlby?
- Preattachment
- Attachment-in-the-making
- Clear-cut attachment
- Formation of reciprocal relationships
When do signs of attachment first become apparent?
About six months of age.
What is social referencing in infants?
Looking to caregivers to determine how to act in ambiguous and unfamiliar situations.
At what age does separation anxiety typically begin?
About six to eight months.
What are the four attachment patterns identified by Ainsworth et al. (1978)?
- Secure attachment
- Insecure/resistant (ambivalent) attachment
- Insecure/avoidant attachment
- Disorganized/disoriented attachment
Describe a baby with secure attachment.
Explores the room when the mother is present, may cry when she leaves, actively seeks contact when she returns, and prefers her to a stranger.
What characterizes a baby with insecure/resistant (ambivalent) attachment?
Stays close to the mother, is distressed when she leaves, may resist her upon return, and is fearful of strangers.
What is the behavior of a baby with insecure/avoidant attachment?
Indifferent toward the mother, little distress when she leaves, avoids her upon return.
What is the disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern?
Fearful of the mother, may exhibit dazed or confused behavior, and shows disorganized responses.
How does the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) relate to children’s attachment patterns?
Early attachment experiences of parents influence the attachment patterns of their children.
What attachment pattern is associated with adults classified as autonomous on the AAI?
Their children usually have secure attachment.
What is the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and childhood attachment?
Low-SES children are more likely to be insecurely attached due to associated risk factors.
What did research find about secure attachment across cultures?
Secure attachment is the most common pattern in both Western and non-Western cultures.
In which cultures is the insecure/avoidant attachment pattern most prevalent?
United States, Germany, and other individualistic cultures.
What is the impact of hospitalization on infants regarding separation from primary caregivers?
Younger infants exhibit little distress, while those over 7 months show significant distress and attachment disturbances.
What did Schaffer and Callender (1959) conclude about the critical period for separation distress?
The critical period begins after the middle of the first year of life.
What are the primary emotions exhibited by children from birth to 18 months of age?
Contentment, interest, distress, joy, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, fear
Primary emotions are fundamental feelings that are universally recognized and are the first emotions to develop in infants.
At what age do children begin to exhibit secondary (self-conscious) emotions?
18 to 24 months
Secondary emotions arise from self-awareness and include feelings such as envy, empathy, and embarrassment.
What is facial emotion recognition?
The ability to perceive emotions in facial expressions
This skill develops during infancy and is crucial for social interactions.
At what age do infants begin to categorize facial expressions of emotion?
About 7 months of age
Infants can recognize the similarity of an emotion expression across different models.
What is the ‘fear bias’ observed in infants around 7 months of age?
Increased attention to fearful facial expressions
This shift occurs as infants become more familiar with various emotional expressions.
What is the positivity effect in older adults?
The tendency to prefer, attend to, and remember more positive information than younger adults
This effect is linked to emotional gratification and socioemotional selectivity theory.
What are the two self-conscious emotions discussed in the text?
Shame and guilt
These emotions arise from self-recognition and social interactions.
What are the two categories of aggression?
Instrumental aggression and hostile aggression
Instrumental aggression is proactive, while hostile aggression is driven by anger.
What is instrumental aggression also known as?
Proactive aggression
This type of aggression is aimed at fulfilling a need or desire.
What is the primary characteristic of hostile aggression?
Driven by anger and intended to hurt someone
It can also be referred to as reactive aggression when provoked.
What are the three forms of aggression described?
Physical aggression, verbal aggression, relational aggression
Each form has distinct characteristics and methods of expression.
What is the coercive family interaction model?
A model that explains how aggressive behaviors in children develop from family dynamics
It emphasizes the role of parental behavior and stress in escalating aggression.
What is the first step in Crick and Dodge’s social information processing model?
Encoding of cues
Aggressive children focus on cues suggesting hostile intentions.
How do violent video games relate to aggression according to the APA Task Force?
They contribute to increases in aggressive behavior and cognitions
The relationship remains significant even when controlling for other risk factors.
True or False: Negative emotions increase with age from early 20s to mid-60s.
False
Negative emotions actually decrease during this period.
Fill in the blank: The self-conscious emotions include ______ and guilt.
shame
Both emotions are linked to personal attributes and behaviors.
What is the significance of the violation-of-expectation paradigm in understanding infant emotions?
It assesses the ability of infants to match facial expressions with eliciting events
This method helps researchers understand infants’ affective meaning recognition.
What has been found useful for improving parent-child interactions and reducing children’s aggression?
Parent training
Parent training can also help with other externalizing behavior problems.
What factors moderate the effectiveness of parent training programs?
Initial severity of the child’s symptoms and family’s socioeconomic status
These factors influence the outcomes of the training.
According to a meta-analysis, how do parent training programs perform for economically disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged families with severe initial problems?
Equally effective immediately posttreatment
What was a significant finding regarding disadvantaged families at the one-year follow-up of parent training?
They had poorer outcomes than advantaged families regardless of initial severity
What characterizes a ‘culture of honor’?
Concerns about maintaining status and reputation, willingness to respond with aggression to threats to honor
Which regions in the United States show more prevalence of ‘culture of honor’ attitudes?
Southern United States
What are some factors attributed to the greater acceptance of violence in southern states?
Warmer temperatures, greater poverty, tradition of slavery, herding economy in the 17th and 18th centuries
What does herding predispose people to do according to Nisbett?
Adopt a violent stance towards others due to the risk of losing livelihoods
What is the relationship between culture-of-honor norms and laws in the South?
Persistence of norms is evident in looser gun laws and higher rates of homicides from honor-related arguments
How do White Southern men typically react to insults compared to their Northern counterparts?
Higher levels of anger, larger increases in cortisol and testosterone, greater endorsement of violence
What are the two classifications of play according to Parten?
Nonsocial play and social play
What are the types of nonsocial play?
- Unoccupied play
- Solitary play
- Onlooker play
What are the types of social play?
- Parallel play
- Associative play
- Cooperative play
What is gender segregation in childhood play?
The tendency of children to choose playmates of the same gender
At what age do most children begin to prefer same-sex playmates?
Between 2 and 3 years of age
How does the type of play children engage in change with age?
Unoccupied and onlooker play occur at all ages; solitary and parallel play decline with age; associative and cooperative play increase with age
What are the five overlapping levels of friendship understanding according to Selman?
- Level 0: Momentary Playmates
- Level 1: One-Way Assistance
- Level 2: Two-Way, Fair Weather Cooperation
- Level 3: Intimate, Mutually Shared Relationships
- Level 4: Mature Friendship
What characterizes rejected-aggressive children?
Hyperactive, impulsive, often in conflict with peers, trouble regulating emotions, misinterpret intentions as hostile
What defines rejected-withdrawn children?
Submissive, passive, high social anxiety, negative expectations about treatment by others
What is the social status of neglected children?
Low interaction with peers, rarely disruptive, usually well-adjusted
What is the socioemotional selectivity theory?
Motivation for friendships is related to perceptions about the amount of time left in life
How do older adults typically view time regarding friendships?
As limited, preferring emotionally close friends
What did Carstensen and colleagues find about unhappily married older couples’ communication styles?
Less likely to engage in ‘negative start-up’ than other couples
What is defined as successful aging?
A multidimensional and integrative state of being encompassing physical, psychological, functional, and social health
What are Rowe and Kahn’s three components of successful aging?
- Reducing risk for disease
- Maintaining high cognitive and physical functioning
- Staying actively engaged with life
What does Baltes and Baltes’s SOC model focus on?
Selection, optimization, and compensation
Fill in the blank: Successful aging is a multidimensional and integrative state of being, encompassing the domains of _______.
physical, psychological, functional, and social health
What are the two main theories of moral development frequently cited?
Piaget and Kohlberg’s theories
According to Piaget, what is necessary for moral development?
Cognitive development
What is the Premoral Stage in Piaget’s theory?
Lasts from birth to about five years; limited understanding of rules and moral behavior
What characterizes the Heteronomous Stage in Piaget’s theory?
Begins at about five or six years; children believe rules are made by authorities and cannot be changed
What is the Autonomous Stage in Piaget’s theory?
Begins around 10 or 11 years; children believe rules are determined by agreement and can change
What is one major criticism of Piaget’s theory?
Underestimates cognitive abilities and moral understanding of young children
What method did Kohlberg use to study moral reasoning?
Presenting subjects with moral dilemmas
What is the Heinz dilemma?
A moral dilemma about whether a husband should steal a drug to save his wife’s life
How many levels are there in Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning?
Three levels
What are the two stages of Preconventional Morality in Kohlberg’s theory?
- Punishment and obedience stage
- Instrumental hedonism stage
What are the two stages of Conventional Morality in Kohlberg’s theory?
- Good boy/good girl stage
- Law and order orientation stage
What are the two stages of Postconventional Morality in Kohlberg’s theory?
- Morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted laws
- Morality of individual principles of conscience
What is one criticism of Kohlberg’s theory?
Underestimates the moral reasoning of young children
True or False: Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for being culturally biased.
True
According to Piaget and Kohlberg, who has a greater influence on a child’s moral development?
Peers
What is the induction style of discipline in parenting?
Explaining why a behavior is wrong and its effect on others
Fill in the blank: The two major styles of discipline that are less effective than induction are _______ and _______.
[power assertion], [love withdrawal]
What assumption underlies the emphasis on peers in moral development according to Piaget and Kohlberg?
Adult unilateral authority often dominates adult-child relationships
What is a key conclusion drawn by Piaget and Kohlberg regarding moral decision-making?
Equality of peer relationships allows for mutual negotiation in resolving moral problems
What are the two patterns predictive of divorce according to Gottman and Levenson?
- Emotionally volatile (attack-defend) pattern
- Emotionally inexpressive (avoidant) pattern
The emotionally volatile pattern is associated with early divorce, while the emotionally inexpressive pattern is linked to divorce later in the marriage.
What are the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse identified by Gottman and Levenson?
- Criticism
- Contempt
- Defensiveness
- Stonewalling
Contempt is identified as the single best predictor of divorce.
How does age at time of marriage affect the risk for divorce?
The risk for divorce decreases as the age at time of marriage increases.
Younger individuals tend to have a higher risk for divorce.
What individual characteristics are linked to an elevated risk for divorce?
- Psychopathology
- High levels of neuroticism
Individuals with psychiatric disorders before or during marriage are more likely to divorce.
What are the effects of divorce on adults/parents?
- Lower levels of happiness
- Greater psychological distress
- More physical health problems
- More negative life events
Economic hardship often affects health problems post-divorce, especially for women.
What is a consistent finding regarding the economic well-being of women after divorce?
The economic well-being of women and their children declines post-divorce.
In contrast, men often experience an improved financial situation after divorce.
How do custodial mothers and noncustodial fathers typically change in their parenting styles after divorce?
- Custodial mothers may show less affection and be more authoritarian
- Noncustodial fathers may become more indulgent and permissive
These changes can impact the children’s adjustment and behavior.
Which age group of children tends to have the most negative outcomes following divorce?
Preschool children often experience the most negative short-term outcomes.
However, older children may have worse long-term consequences.
What is the ‘sleeper effect’ in girls after parental divorce?
Girls may experience few problems initially but later develop low self-esteem and emotional issues in adolescence.
This can lead to early pregnancies and relationship fears.
How does marital conflict affect children’s outcomes?
Marital conflict negatively impacts children whether parents are divorced or together.
Children from highly conflictual intact families are often more poorly adjusted than those from low-conflict divorced families.
What factors influence children’s outcomes post-divorce?
- Age
- Gender
- Socioeconomic status
- Marital conflict
Financial hardship post-divorce is linked to academic and social problems in children.
What is the adjustment of children in simple stepfamilies compared to blended stepfamilies?
Adjustment in simple stepfamilies improves over time, while blended stepfamilies show more challenges.
Supportive relationships between stepparents and biological parents can enhance adjustment.
Which gender experiences more problems adjusting to stepfamilies?
Girls tend to have more problems adjusting to both stepfathers and stepmothers.
Boys often benefit from having stepfathers if the relationship is supportive.
How does age affect children’s adjustment to stepparents?
Pre- and early adolescence (approximately 9 to 15 years) are associated with the most problems.
This age group faces identity and sexuality issues alongside adjustment challenges.
What was an initial finding regarding premarital cohabitation and divorce rates?
Married couples who cohabitated before marriage had higher rates of divorce than those who did not.
Recent studies show the relationship is more complex.
What do recent studies suggest about the relationship between premarital sex and marital satisfaction?
Premarital sex is associated with lower marital satisfaction and an increased risk for divorce.
Having multiple premarital partners correlates with higher divorce risks.
How does marital status relate to life expectancy?
Married individuals typically have longer life expectancies than never married individuals.
Women generally have longer life expectancies than men.
What is the relationship between marital status and life satisfaction?
Married individuals report the highest levels of life satisfaction.
Cohabiting individuals have similar satisfaction levels, while previously married individuals report the lowest.
What is the general trend in relationship satisfaction for couples transitioning to parenthood?
A decline in relationship satisfaction and an increase in relationship conflict
This trend is particularly pronounced for couples who become parents early in their marriage.
How do adoptive parents’ experiences compare to biological parents during the transition to parenthood?
Adoptive parents report less marital and parenting stress, a smaller decrease in marital satisfaction, and a more stable pattern of relationship quality
This finding suggests better outcomes for adoptive parents compared to biological parents.
What factors can lessen the stress associated with the transition to parenthood?
Availability of support from family and friends, sharing parenting responsibilities
Greater disparities in responsibilities are linked to declines in relationship satisfaction, especially for women.
What demographic differences exist between parents of adopted children and parents of biological children?
Parents of adopted children tend to be better educated and have higher family incomes
Despite these advantages, adopted children are at greater risk for psychological, behavioral, and academic problems.
What are some common issues faced by adopted children compared to their biological counterparts?
- More likely to have schoolwork and classroom behavior problems
- Higher rates of physical and psychological health conditions, including ADHD
This information comes from a study analyzing data from the U.S. Department of Education’s 2016 National Household Education Survey.
What is the term used to describe parents who are overly involved in their children’s lives?
Helicopter parents
These parents often intervene in their children’s activities and make decisions for them.
List some negative outcomes associated with helicopter parenting.
- High levels of stress and anxiety
- Increased sense of entitlement
- Low levels of autonomy
- Decreased academic motivation and achievement
Research indicates that helicopter parenting can hinder children’s emotional and behavioral development.
What is the empty nest phenomenon?
The situation after the last child leaves home, initially described as an emotional crisis for parents
Research has found that it is often associated with more positive outcomes, such as increased marital satisfaction.
What is Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) as defined by the Centers for Disease Control?
Physical violence, sexual violence, stalking, and psychological aggression by a current or former intimate partner
This includes coercive tactics.
What are the three phases in Walker’s Cycle of Violence?
- Tension building phase
- Acute battering incident
- Loving contrition phase
This cycle describes recurring IPV and its dynamics.
What are the four types of IPV according to Johnson’s typology?
- Intimate terrorism
- Violent resistance
- Mutual violent control
- Situational couple violence
These types vary based on the perpetrator’s motivations and the nature of the violence.
In which type of IPV does the male partner typically use violence to control the female partner?
Intimate terrorism
This type often involves physical violence accompanied by other methods of control.
What defines violent resistance in IPV?
Perpetrated by the female partner as a response to a violent and controlling male partner
The motivation is often self-defense or retaliation.
What distinguishes mutual violent control from other types of IPV?
Perpetrated by both partners to gain control over their relationship
This type is the least common among the four types identified by Johnson.
What characterizes situational couple violence?
Can be perpetrated by both male and female partners, ranging from mild to severe, and often provoked by situational factors
This type is the most common form of IPV.
What are the four types of child maltreatment?
Physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological (emotional) abuse, neglect.
Which type of maltreatment is the most common?
Neglect.
What factors affect a child’s risk for maltreatment?
Child’s age, gender, race/ethnicity, family structure.
At what age is the rate of victimization highest?
Below 1 year of age.
True or False: The rate of victimization is higher for boys than girls.
False.
Which racial/ethnic groups have the highest rates of victimization?
American Indian and Alaska Native children, followed by African American children.
Children living in what type of family structure are at higher risk for maltreatment?
Single-parent or step/cohabiting families.
What is a significant long-term consequence of childhood maltreatment?
Increased risk for obesity in adulthood.
What factor may mediate the link between childhood maltreatment and adult obesity?
Depression.
How does gender affect short-term effects of child sexual abuse?
Females are more likely to exhibit depression and internalizing behaviors; males are more likely to exhibit conduct problems and aggression.
What is the prediction of betrayal trauma theory regarding child sexual abuse?
Abuse by a family member is associated with worse mental health outcomes.
What factors are related to the severity of consequences from child sexual abuse?
Duration, severity of the abuse, force, and penetration.
What therapies are empirically supported for child maltreatment?
Parent-child interaction therapy and trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy.
What age group is Parent-Child Interaction Therapy effective for?
Children ages 2 to 12.
What are the two phases of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy?
- Child-directed interaction phase
- Parent-directed interaction phase
What is the focus of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy?
Helping children cope with posttraumatic stress and negative consequences of trauma.
True or False: Early maternal employment significantly impacts children’s development.
False.
What effect does maternal employment have on children from single-parent or low-income families?
Small positive effects on behavior and academic achievement.
What is the impact of high-quality daycare on children’s skills?
- May increase behavioral problems
- Improve cognitive and language skills
- Improve some social skills
What is cultural socialization?
Parental practices intended to teach youth about their history, customs, and to instill cultural pride.
What outcomes are linked to cultural socialization?
- Positive self-concept
- Higher academic achievement
- Fewer behavior problems
What effect can teacher expectations have on student achievement?
Self-fulfilling prophecy effect.
What did Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) conclude about ‘bloomers’?
Teachers treated them differently, leading to increased IQ scores.
How do male and female teachers typically interact with students?
Reflect gender stereotypes, calling on male students more often.
