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learning and memory Flashcards

1
Q

Who initially described classical conditioning?

A

Ivan Pavlov

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2
Q

What was the unconditioned stimulus (US) in Pavlov’s studies?

A

Meat powder

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3
Q

What was the unconditioned response (UR) elicited by the US?

A

Salivation

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4
Q

What type of stimulus is a ringing bell before conditioning?

A

Neutral stimulus

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5
Q

What does a conditioned stimulus (CS) elicit after conditioning?

A

Conditioned response (CR)

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6
Q

True or False: The magnitude of a conditioned response (CR) is always greater than the unconditioned response (UR).

A

False

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7
Q

What affects the magnitude of a conditioned response (CR)?

A

Number of times the CS and US are paired

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8
Q

What is the most effective conditioning procedure?

A

Delay conditioning

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9
Q

In delay conditioning, when is the CS presented in relation to the US?

A

Before and overlaps with the US

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10
Q

What is the optimal delay between the CS and US in delay conditioning?

A

About one-half second

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11
Q

In trace conditioning, when is the CS presented in relation to the US?

A

Presented and terminated just before the US

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12
Q

In simultaneous conditioning, when are the CS and US presented?

A

At about the same time

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13
Q

What happens in backward conditioning?

A

US is presented before the CS

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14
Q

True or False: Backward conditioning is usually effective.

A

False

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15
Q

What accounts for classical conditioning according to the text?

A

Contingency of stimuli

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16
Q

What is classical extinction?

A

Classical extinction occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US, leading to no CR being produced.

This process demonstrates the weakening of the conditioned response over time.

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17
Q

What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

A

Spontaneous recovery is the return of a CR in a reduced form after a period when the CS is presented alone post-extinction.

Pavlov referred to this return as evidence that extinction suppresses the association rather than eliminates it.

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18
Q

Define stimulus generalization.

A

Stimulus generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the original CS elicit the CR without being paired with the US.

An example is Little Albert, who generalized his fear of a white rat to other white furry objects.

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19
Q

What was the role of the loud noise in Little Albert’s experiment?

A

The loud noise was the US that was paired with the white rat, which was the CS, to elicit a startle response (CR) in Albert.

This experiment illustrated how phobias can be acquired through classical conditioning.

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20
Q

What is stimulus discrimination?

A

Stimulus discrimination is the ability to differentiate between the CS and similar stimuli.

This is the opposite of stimulus generalization.

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21
Q

How did Pavlov’s dogs demonstrate stimulus discrimination?

A

The dogs learned to salivate only in response to a 2000-Hz tone and not to a 2100-Hz tone after discrimination training.

This involved presenting the 2000-Hz tone with meat powder and the 2100-Hz tone without it.

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22
Q

What is experimental neurosis?

A

Experimental neurosis refers to the unusual agitation and aggression in dogs when they faced difficult discrimination tasks.

Pavlov concluded this was due to a conflict between excitatory and inhibitory processes in the central nervous system.

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23
Q

What is conditioned inhibition?

A

A method for reducing or eliminating a conditioned response by inhibiting a previously established conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus

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24
Q

In Pavlov’s studies, what does CS+ refer to?

A

The conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response when presented alone

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25
Q

What is the role of CS- in conditioned inhibition?

A

It is a new neutral stimulus paired with CS+ without presenting the unconditioned stimulus, signaling that the US will not be presented

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26
Q

What happens when CS+ and CS- are presented together?

A

They do not produce the conditioned response of salivation

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27
Q

Define higher-order conditioning

A

The process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus so that the neutral stimulus also becomes a conditioned stimulus

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28
Q

What is second-order conditioning?

A

Higher-order conditioning involving a second conditioned stimulus

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29
Q

What is compound conditioning?

A

Conditioning that occurs when two or more stimuli are presented together, including blocking and overshadowing

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30
Q

Describe blocking in classical conditioning

A

When a previously conditioned stimulus blocks the conditioning of a new neutral stimulus due to prior association with the unconditioned stimulus

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31
Q

What occurs during overshadowing?

A

When two neutral stimuli are presented together, the more salient stimulus elicits a conditioned response while the less salient does not

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32
Q

Fill in the blank: In blocking, the second neutral stimulus does not provide any new information about the occurrence of the _______.

A

[unconditioned stimulus]

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33
Q

True or False: A less salient stimulus can still become a conditioned stimulus if it is paired alone with the unconditioned stimulus.

A

True

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34
Q

What is the effect of the less salient stimulus being overshadowed?

A

It fails to become a conditioned stimulus due to being overshadowed by the more salient stimulus during conditioning trials

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35
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

A theory useful for understanding factors contributing to the acquisition, maintenance, and cessation of voluntary behaviors.

36
Q

Who conducted the puzzle box experiment with cats?

A

E. L. Thorndike

37
Q

What did Thorndike conclude from his puzzle box experiment?

A

Cats learned to escape through trial-and-error; behaviors are likely to recur based on their consequences.

38
Q

What is the law of effect?

A

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are likely to occur again; those followed by dissatisfying consequences are less likely.

39
Q

Who extended Thorndike’s work with operant conditioning?

A

B. F. Skinner

40
Q

What does Skinner’s theory propose about voluntary behavior?

A

It depends on how the behavior operates on the environment, specifically whether it produces reinforcement or punishment.

41
Q

Define positive reinforcement.

A

Occurs when a behavior increases because a stimulus is applied following the behavior.

42
Q

Provide an example of positive reinforcement.

A

An employee works overtime because he’s paid extra.

43
Q

Define negative reinforcement.

A

Occurs when a behavior increases because a stimulus is removed following the behavior.

44
Q

Provide an example of negative reinforcement.

A

A child straightens her room because her parents stop nagging her.

45
Q

Define positive punishment.

A

Occurs when a behavior decreases because a stimulus is applied following the behavior.

46
Q

Provide an example of positive punishment.

A

A child stops teasing the dog because his parents yell at him.

47
Q

Define negative punishment.

A

Occurs when a behavior decreases because a stimulus is taken away following the behavior.

48
Q

Provide an example of negative punishment.

A

An adolescent stops swearing because money is deducted from his allowance.

49
Q

What is the first step in determining if a scenario describes reinforcement or punishment?

A

Determine whether the behavior is increasing/maintained or decreasing.

50
Q

What mnemonic can help remember the types of reinforcement and punishment?

A

Positive reinforcement = reward, negative reinforcement = relief, positive punishment = pain, negative punishment = loss.

51
Q

Fill in the blank: Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior ______.

A

increases because a stimulus is applied.

52
Q

Fill in the blank: Negative punishment occurs when a behavior ______.

A

decreases because a stimulus is taken away.

53
Q

What is operant extinction?

A

The process of extinguishing a reinforced behavior by withholding reinforcement every time the behavior occurs.

This can lead to an initial increase in the behavior known as an extinction burst.

54
Q

What is the fastest method for acquiring a behavior in operant conditioning?

A

Reinforcement on a continuous schedule, where the behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.

However, continuous reinforcement can lead to satiation and rapid extinction.

55
Q

What is the optimal procedure for reinforcement schedules?

A

Start with a continuous schedule and then switch to an intermittent (partial) schedule when the behavior is at the desired level.

56
Q

What is a fixed interval (FI) schedule?

A

Reinforcement is provided after a fixed period of time, regardless of the number of responses during that interval.

Example: FI-20 schedule provides reinforcement every 20 seconds.

57
Q

What is a variable interval (VI) schedule?

A

Reinforcement is provided after intervals of varying and unpredictable lengths.

Example: VI-20 schedule averages reinforcement after 20 seconds but varies in length.

58
Q

What is a fixed ratio (FR) schedule?

A

Reinforcement is provided after a specific number of responses.

Example: FR-10 schedule provides reinforcement after every ten lever presses.

59
Q

What is a variable ratio (VR) schedule?

A

Reinforcement is provided after a variable number of responses.

Example: VR-10 schedule averages reinforcement after ten responses but varies.

60
Q

Which intermittent schedule produces the highest rate of responding?

A

Variable ratio (VR) schedule.

VR schedules also show the greatest resistance to extinction.

61
Q

Fill in the blank: An extinction burst refers to _______.

A

a temporary increase in behavior after reinforcement is withheld.

62
Q

True or False: A fixed interval schedule produces a high rate of responding.

A

False. FI schedules produce a low rate of responding.

63
Q

What happens to behavior when reinforcement is stopped in a continuous schedule?

A

It leads to rapid extinction of the behavior.

64
Q

What is thinning in the context of behavior reinforcement?

A

Thinning refers to reducing the amount of reinforcement for a behavior

Examples include switching from a continuous to an intermittent schedule of reinforcement or from an FR-10 to an FR-20 schedule.

65
Q

What is behavioral contrast?

A

Behavioral contrast occurs when the frequencies of two behaviors change due to an alteration in the rate of reinforcement for one of the behaviors

It can be negative (increased reinforcement for one behavior decreases the other) or positive (decreased reinforcement for one behavior increases the other).

66
Q

What is negative behavioral contrast?

A

Negative behavioral contrast occurs when the amount of reinforcement for Behavior A is increased while Behavior B remains unaltered, resulting in an increase in Behavior A and a decrease in Behavior B

This highlights the relationship between reinforcement rates and behavior frequencies.

67
Q

What is positive behavioral contrast?

A

Positive behavioral contrast occurs when the amount of reinforcement for Behavior A is decreased while Behavior B remains unaltered, resulting in a decrease in Behavior A and an increase in Behavior B

It emphasizes how changes in reinforcement for one behavior can affect another.

68
Q

What does the matching law state?

A

The matching law states that the rate of performing each behavior is proportional to the frequency of reinforcement when two or more behaviors are concurrently reinforced on different schedules

For example, a rat will press a lever more often if it is reinforced on a more frequent schedule.

69
Q

How does the magnitude of reinforcement relate to the matching law?

A

The rate of responding will match the magnitude of the reinforcement

For instance, if one lever provides access to food for a longer duration, it will be pressed more often.

70
Q

What are primary reinforcers?

A

Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy basic survival needs, such as food and water

They are essential for sustaining life.

71
Q

What are secondary reinforcers?

A

Secondary reinforcers are neutral stimuli that become reinforcing due to their association with primary reinforcers

Examples include praise and tokens.

72
Q

What are generalized reinforcers?

A

Generalized reinforcers are secondary reinforcers that are associated with a variety of primary reinforcers

Money is a common example as it can be exchanged for numerous goods and services.

73
Q

What is superstitious behavior?

A

Superstitious behavior occurs when a behavior increases due to accidental reinforcement

Skinner’s study with pigeons demonstrated this when they associated their actions with food delivery.

74
Q

Fill in the blank: In behavior reinforcement, _______ is when the amount of reinforcement is reduced.

A

thinning

75
Q

True or False: Positive behavioral contrast occurs when an increase in reinforcement for one behavior leads to an increase in another behavior.

A

False

Positive behavioral contrast refers to a decrease in reinforcement leading to an increase in another behavior.

76
Q

What is stimulus control?

A

A behavior is brought under stimulus control when it occurs in the presence of one stimulus but not another stimulus.

Example: Rats learn that pressing a lever delivers food when a light is blinking but not when it is not blinking.

77
Q

What is a positive discriminative stimulus (SD)?

A

A stimulus that signals reinforcement will be delivered.

Example: A blinking light indicating food delivery when a lever is pressed.

78
Q

What is a negative discriminative stimulus (S-delta)?

A

A stimulus that signals reinforcement will not be delivered.

Example: A non-blinking light indicating no food delivery when a lever is pressed.

79
Q

What is two-factor learning?

A

A combination of operant and classical conditioning that explains behavior performance in response to stimuli.

Performance is due to positive reinforcement and discrimination training.

80
Q

What are prompts in behavior conditioning?

A

Cues that help initiate the performance of a behavior, including cues, instructions, or physical guidance.

Example: ‘Finish your homework and you can play video games’.

81
Q

What is fading in the context of prompts?

A

The gradual removal of a prompt once the behavior is at the desired level.

82
Q

What is stimulus generalization?

A

When stimuli similar to the positive discriminative stimulus elicit the same response.

This concept is consistent in both operant and classical conditioning.

83
Q

What is response generalization?

A

When reinforcement for a specific behavior increases the likelihood of similar behaviors occurring.

Example: A child praised for sharing one toy starts sharing other toys.

84
Q

What is escape conditioning?

A

A behavior that occurs to escape an unpleasant stimulus.

Example: A dog jumps over a barrier to escape an electric shock.

85
Q

What is avoidance conditioning?

A

A behavior that occurs to avoid an unpleasant stimulus when a signal indicates it is about to occur.

Example: A dog jumps over a barrier to avoid an electric shock after seeing a blinking light.

86
Q

What is habituation?

A

The gradual decline in the frequency or magnitude of a response over time.

In operant conditioning, it explains why punishment becomes less effective long-term.

87
Q

True or False: Punishment tends to become more effective over time.

A

False

Punishment often becomes less effective due to habituation.

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