Chapter 9 Discovering Psychology Notes Flashcards
1
Q
- Unique combination of genes inherited from biological mother and father
- The historical era during which you grew up
- Cultural contexts
- Social contexts
- Family contexts within which you were raised
A
Influencing Factors Beyond Our Control Influencing Life Stories
2
Q
The study of how people change psysiologically, cognitively, and socially throughout the lifespan.
A
Developmental Psychology
3
Q
- Biological
- Environmental
- Social
- Cultural
- Behavioral
A
Factors Developmental Psychologists Investigate at Every Stage and Age of Life
4
Q
- Attitudes
- Perceptions
- Personality Characteristics
A
Influence the Impact of Developmental Factors
5
Q
- Longitudinal Design
- Cross-Sectional Design
A
Research Methods for How People Develop
6
Q
Tracks a particular variable or group of variables in the same group of participants over time, sometimes for years.
A
Longitudinal Design
7
Q
Studies a variable or group of variables among a group of participants at different ages or developmental stages.
A
Cross-Sectional Design
8
Q
Traditionally defined by age, which implies that we experience relatively sudden, age-related changes as we move from one stage to the next.
- Most of our physical, cognitive and social changes occur gradually
- Can be abrupt
- Can be closely tied to critical periods
A
Stages of Lifespan
9
Q
Periods during which a child is maximally sensitive to environmental influences.
A
Critical Periods
10
Q
Although we are born with a specific genetic potential that we inherit from our biological parents, our environment influences how, when, and whether that potential is expressed. Our genetic inheritance influences the ways in which we experience and interact with the environment.
A
Interaction Between Herediy and Environment (Nature-Nurture)
11
Q
- Zygote
- Chromosomes
- Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
- Genes
- Genotype
- Phenotype
- Epigenetics
A
Genetic Contributions to Development
12
Q
A single cell packed with genetic instructions that you inherited from your biological parents.
A
Zygote
13
Q
Found in the cell nucleus, contains the genetic data inherited from biological parents. Each of these is a long, thread-like stucture composed of twisted parallel strands of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
A
Chromosomes
14
Q
Stores the inherited information that guides the development of all living organisms.
A
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
15
Q
DNA segments stung up like beads along the length of a chromosome. A unit of DNA code for making a particular protein molecule.
- Make up less than 2% of human DNA
- Direct the manufacture of proteins
- Don’t directly control development, traits, or behaviors
A
Genes
16
Q
The genetic makeup of an individual organism.
- Every cell of your body contains a complete copy of this (excluding reprodiction cells)
- Represented by each set of 23 chromosome pairs
- contains only about 20,000 to 25,000 protein-coding genes
- Used to commonly be described as a “genetic blueprint” (not accurate)
- alleles
A
Genotype
17
Q
Different versions of genes.
- i.e.- freckles is a result of dominant genes vs. recessive genes
- Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes
A
Alleles
18
Q
The observable traits or characteristics of an organism as determined by the interaction of genetics and environmental factors.
- Environmental factors influence these- i.e.- freckles may be inherited but require sun to actually be seen.
- Different genotypes react differently to environmental factors- i.e.- some people are more sensitive to UV rays and sunburn easily
A
Phenotype
19
Q
The study of the cellular mechanisms that control gene expression and of the ways that gene espression impacts health and behavior.
- Dramatic differences among size, shape, and function of cells are due to which genes are expressed or activated to participate in protein production.
- Gene expression can be triggered by the activity of other genes, internal chemical changes, or by external environmental factors
- Genes can mutate from one generation to the next
A
Epigenetics
20
Q
Conception to birth
A
Prenatal Stage
21
Q
Birth to 2 years
A
Infancy to toddlerhood
22
Q
2 to 6 years
A
Early childhood
23
Q
6 to 12 years
A
Middle Childhood
24
Q
12 to 18 years
A
Adolescence
25
18 to 25 years
Emerging Adulthood
26
25 to 40 years
Early Adulthood
27
40 to 65 years
Middle Adulthood
28
65 years to death
Late Adulthood
29
The stage of development before birth. Divided into three distinct phases:
1. Germinal period
2. Embryonic period
3. Fetal Period
Prenatal Period
30
Represents the first two weeks of prenatal development.
* Zygote undergoes rapid cell division before becoming implanted on the wall of the mother's uterus.
* Some of the zygote's cells will eventually form the structures that house and protect the developing fetus and provide nourishment from the mother.
* At the end of this period, the single-cell zygote has developed into a cluster of cells called the embryo.
Germinal Period (Zygotic Period)
31
Begins with week 3 and extends through week 8.
* Rapid growth and cell differentation- organs and major systems of the body form
* Genes on the sex chromosomes and hormonal influences tigger initial development of the sex organs.
* Housed in fluid-filled embryonic sac- lifeline is the umbilical cord which provides nourishment, oxygen and water and carries away wastes and carbon dioxide
* Primitive neural cells form
* At the end of this stage, the embryo has grown from a cluster of a few hundred cells no bigger than the head of a pin to over an inch in length. (weighs about an ounce) Looks distinctly human though the head accounts for half its body size.
Embryonic Period
32
A disk-shaped, vascuar organ that prevents the mother's blood from directly mingling with that of hte developing embryo.
* Acts as a filter for harmful agents in the mother's blood
* Cannot filter out all harmful agents (teratogens)
Placenta
33
Harmful agents or substances that can cause malformations or defects in the embryo or fetus.
* Greatest vulnerability occurs during the embryonic stage
Teratogens
34
* Cocaine
* Prescription and over-the-counter drugs
* Cigarette smoke
* Alcohol
Teratogens that can damage the developing fetus at any stage
35
* Exposure to radiation
* Toxic chemicals and metals, such as mercury, PCBs and lead
* Viruses and bacteria, such as German Measles (rubella), syphilis, genital herpes, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
* Perscription painkillers and other prescription and nonprescription drugs
* Addictive drugs, including heroine, sedatives, cocaine, amphetamines, and methamphetamine
* Maternal smoking and exposure to secondhard smoke
* Alcohol
* Mother's psychological state
Known Teratogens
36
Characterized by physical and mental problems. Symptoms include:
* Abnormal facial features
* Poor coordination
* Learning disabilities
* Behavior problems
* Intellectual disability
* Note: there is no safe level of drinking alcohol during pregnancy
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
37
* Neural tube
* Stem cells
* Ventricles
* Neurons
Prenatal Brain Development
38
A sheet of primitive neural cells that developed around week 3 curls to form this during the prenatal stage.
* at 4 weeks, this is the size of a grain of salt
* at 7 weeks, this is about a quarter-inch long
* Top of this tickens into three bulges that eventually form the three main regions of hte brain (hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain)
Neural Tube
39
Undifferentiated cells that can divide and give rise to cells that can develop into any one o the body's different cell types.
* divide indefinitely, renew, give rise to other types of cells
* Line the neural tube
Stem Cells
40
Found at the core of the fully developed brain. Develops from the neural tube expanding. These are filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions and provides nutrients for the brain and spinal cord.
Ventricles
41
New cells of this type develop during peak periods of brain development.
* Generated at a rate of 250,000 per minute.
* Glial cells- join with other developing cells of this kind and begin forming the structures of the developing nervous system.
Neurons
42
The third and longest period of prenatal development, extending from the ninth week until birth.
* End of 3rd month- fetus can move its arms, legs, mouth, and head. fetus becomes capable of reflexive responses
* 4th month- quickening- feeling the fetus move
* Distinct sleep-wake cycles and period of activity
* 6th month- brain is that of a newborn
* Final 2 months- fetus doubles in weight,
Fetal Period
43
* Newborn's brain is about 1/4th the size of an adult brain (less than 1lb)
* Neurons grow in size and continue to develop new dendrites and interconnections with other neurons
* Myelin forms on axons in key areas of the brain
After Birth
44
* Reflexes, recognition, vision
* Physical development
* Social and personality development
* Language development
* Gender development
* Cognitive development
Development During Infancy and Childhood
45
* Rooting reflex- turning towards source of touch when cheek is touched
* Sucking reflex
* Grasping reflex- grasping fingers to pull self up
* Newborns senses are keely attuned to people (most fixated on people)
* Within just hours of birth, newborns display a preference for their mother's voice and face from a stranger's
* Vision is the least developed sense at birth- optimal distance is 6-12 inches (extremely nearsighted)
Reflexes, recognition, vision
46
* 7-8 months of age- begin crawling, vision is as clear as that of their parents
* Brain will grow from 25% of that of an adult to 75% of that of an adult, body weight will grow from 5% to 20% of that of an adult
* Cephalocaudal- "Head to tail"- physical and motor skill development tends to follow a "top to bottom" sequence. Develops control over her head, chest, and arms before developing control over the lower part of her body and legs
* Proximodistal trend- tendency of infants to develop motor control from the center of their bodies outwards.
* Each infant will have their own timetable of physical maturation and developmental readiness to master different motor skills.
Physical Development
47
Social and Personality Development
* Tempermental qualities
* Attachment
48
Inborn predispositions to consistently behave and react in a certain way.
Temperment
49
* Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess- study on how tempermental qualities influence adjustment throughout life. Found that about 2/3 of babies can be classified into one of three broad tempermental patterns: easy, difficult and slow-to-warm-up. The remaining third were classified as normal
* Jerome Kagan- classified temperment in terms of reactivity- high reactive and low reactive
* Individual differences have a genetic and biological basis
* Environmental experiences also modify temperment
* Cultural beliefs have an effect as well
Tempermental Qualities
50
* Readily adapt to new experiences
* Generally display positive moods and emotions
* Have regular sleeping and eating patterns
Easy Babies
51
* tend to be intensely emotional
* Irritable and fussy
* Cry a lot
* Tend to have irregular sleeping and eating patterns
Difficult Babies
52
* Low activity level
* Withdraw from new situations and people
* Adapt to new experiences very gradually
Slow-to-Warm-up Babies
53
* React intensely to new experiences, stangers, and novel objects
* Tend to be tense, fearful, and inhibited
High-Reactive Infants
54
* Tend be be calmer, uninhibited, and bolder
* Scoiable rather than shy
* More likely to show interest than fear when exposed to new people, experiences, and objects
Low-Reactive Infants
55
The emotional bond that forms between an infant and caregiver(s), especially his or her parents.
* Spitz- showed detrimental effects of institutionalization of children who were deprived of a relationship with a warm, loving caregiver
* Contact comfort- Harlow shows that all primates need attachment
* The parent or caregiver functions as a secure base for the infant, providing a sense of comfort and security- a safe haven from which the infant can explore and lear about the environment.
Attachment
56
An infant's ability to thrive physically and psychologically depends in large part on the quality of attachment.
* **Secure attachment**- parents are warm, responsive and sensitive to their infant's needs. Infant's expectations that her needs will be met is the most essential ingredient for this type of attachment.
* **Insecure attachment**- parents are neglectful, inconsistent, or insensitive to infant's moods or behaviors. Seems to reflect an ambivalent or detached emotional relationship between an infant and his parents.
Attachment Theory (Bowlby and Ainsworth)
57
Devised by Mary D. Salter Ainsworth. typically used with infants who are between 1 and 2 years old. The baby and his mother are brought into an unfamiliar room with a variety of toys. A few minutes later, a stranger enters the room. The mother stays with the baby for a few minutes, then departs, leaving the baby alone with the stranger. After a few minutes, the mother returns, spends a few minutes in the room, leaves, and returns again.
* Securely attached infant- use mother as secure base to explore the new environment, show distress when mother leaves, is warm when she returns and is easily soothed by the mother.
* Insecurely attached infant- less likely to explore, may appear anxious or indifferent, ignore or avoid mothers when they are present, may become severely distressed when the mother leaves, hard to soothe and may resist mother's attempts to comfort them.
Strange Situation
58
* Father if he is the primary caregiver
* Mother if she is the primary caregiver
* Both the mother and the father when they are both present
* Other consistent caregivers (relatives or workers in a day-care)
Multiple attachments
59
* Preschoolers securely attached- more prosocial, empathic, socially competent
* Middle chidhood- Better adjusted and have higher levels of social and cognitive development
* Adolescents- Fewer problems, do better in school, have more successful relationships with their peers
* College students- More likely to feel empathy, ability to understand another person's perspective
Attachments Later in Life
60
* Noam Chomsky- every child is born with a biological ability to learn language- any language.
* "Universal-grammar"- A basic understanding of the common principals of language organization. Infants are innately equipped to understand language but also to extract grammatical rules from what they hear.
* At birth, infants can distinguish among the speech sounds of all the world's languages, no matter what language is spoken in their homes. (lose this ability around 10-12 months of age)
* Shortly after birth- infants prefer speech over other sounds that humans make
* Within the first year of life, infants begin to master the sound structure of tehir own native language.
Language Development
61
Universal across cultures, a way that parents speak to infants to encourage language development. Characterized by a very distinct pronunciation, a simplified vocabulary, short sentences, high pitch, and exaggerated intonation and expression.
* prefered by infants
* Speech of parents change to fit the child's developing language abilities.
Motherese (Parentese, Infant-Directed Speech)- Encouraging Language Development
62
Stages of language development appear to be universal:
* about 3 months- infants begin to "coo" repeating vowel sounds (ahhh, ooooo) varying the pitch up or down
* about 5 months- infants begin to "babble"- add consonants to vowels and string the sounds together in sometimes long-winded productions (ba-ba-ba-ba-ba). This is immitation of adult speech. Infants around the world use the same sound when they babble, whether or not it is not a sound that occurs in their language.
* about 9 months- babies babble more in sounds specific to their language
The Cooing and Babbling Stage of Language Development
63
Babies being speaking around their first year. They use a single word and vocal intonation to stand for an entire sentence.
* Comprehension vocabulary
* Production vocabulary
One Word Stage of Language Development
64
The words that are understood by an infant or child.
Comprehension Vocabulary
65
The words that an infant or child understands and can speak.
Production Vocabulary
66
Around 2 years of age, toddlers begin putting words together. The words used are primarily context words- nouns, verbs, and sometimes adjectives or adverbs. Articles and prepositions are omitted.
* Reflect the first understanding of grammar
* Children move beyond this stage around 2 and a half years of age. around 3 years old, the child has a production vocabulary of around 3,000 words. 10,000 around school age (learning 12 words a day).
The Two-Word Stage of Language Development
67
* Gender
* Gender role
* Gender identity
Gender Development
68
The cultural, social, and psychological meanings that are associated with masculinity and femininity.
Gender
69
The behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are designated as ether masculine or feminine in a given culture.
Gender Role
70
A person's psychological sense of being male or female.
Gender Identity
71
The theory that gender roles are acquired through the basic processes of learning, including reinforcement, punishment, and modeling.
* Children come to understand that certain activities and attributes are considered more appropriate for one sex than the other
Social Learning Theory of Gender Role Development (Cognitive Social Learning Theory)
72
The theory that gender-role development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations of masculinity and femininity.
* Schemas influence how people pay attention to, perceive, interpret, and remember gender-relevant behavior. Also seem to lead children to perceive members of their own sex more favorably.
Gender Schema Theory (Sandra Bem)
73
Gender differences are a result of generations of the dual forces of sexual selection and parental investment.
* this can also be observed in adults
* Buss- people gravitate towards "good genes" for their "mating strategies"
Evolutionary Theorys of Gender
74
Men tend to be physically larger and stronger than women and women are biologically responsible for reproduction. These biological differences mean that it can be more efficient for men and boys to be responsible for some activities and womena and girls to be responsible for others.
Interactionist Theories of Gender (Eagly and Wood)
75
Condition in which a person's psychological gender identity conflicts with his or her biological sex.
* transgender man- an anatomical female who identifies with or wishes to become male
* Transgender woman- an anatomical male who identifies with or wishes to become female.
* Cisgender man or woman- a person whose anatomy matches their gender identity
76
Children actively try to make sense of their environment rather than passively soaking up information about the world. Four distinct stages (hereditary and environmental differences could influence the rate at which a given child progreses through the stages):
1. Sensorimotor stage
2. Preoperational stage
3. Concrete operational stage
4. Formal operational stage
Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
77
The first stage of cognitive development, from birth to about age 2; the period during which the infant explores the environment and acquires knowledge through sensing and manipulating objects.
* sensory- taste, feel, smell and sound
* Motor- reaching, grasping, pushing, pulling, and pouring.
* Objects "exist" only if they can sense it- at the end of this stage they develop cognitive permanence
Sensorimotor Stage
78
The understanding that an object continues to exist even when it can no longer be seen.
* Gain this as the infant gains experience with objects, as their sensory abilities improve, and as they develop mental representations of the world (schemas)
Object Permanence
79
The second stage of cognitive development, which lasts from about age 2 to age 7, characterized by increasing use of symbols and prelogical though processes.
* Symbolic thought
* Child's understanding of symbols remains immature
* Egocentrism
* Irreversibility
* Centration
* Conservation
Preoperational Stage
80
The ability to use words, images, and symbols to represent the world.
* fantasy and imagination while playing
Symbolic Thought
81
The inability to take another person's perspective or point of view.
* Not selfishness or conceit- just the inability to understand how another person would view something. i.e.- thinking grandma would like a lego set
Egocentrism
82
The inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations.
* i.e. may not understand that 1 plus 3 and 3 plus 1 use the same logical operation.
83
The tendency to focus, or center, on only one aspect of a situation and ignore other important aspects of the situation.
* i.e. a small fat glass holds the same as a tall skinny glass, however becuse the water appears higher in the tall and skinny glass, they will be unable to see that the amount of water is actually the same in both.
Centration
84
The understanding that two equal quantities remain equal even though the form or appearance is rearranged, as long as nothing is added or subtracted.
Conservation
85
The third stage of cognitive development, which lasts from about age 7 to adolescence, characterized by the ability to think logically about concrete objects and situations.
* Tend to be limited to reality- tangibe objects and events
* Limited to his or her personal experiences an actual events
The Concrete Operational Stage
86
In Piaget's theory, the fourth stage of cognitive development, which lasts from adolescence through adulthood; characterized by the ability to think logically about abstract principals and hypothetical situations.
* Thought emerges gradually, continues to increase in sophistication throughout adolescence and adulthoot.
* Often limited in areas in which they have developed expertise or a special interest.
Formal Operational Stage
87
Generally scientific reasearch supports Piaget's most fundamental idea: infants, young children and older children use distinctly different cognitive abilities to construct their understanding of the world.
* Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of infants and young children.
* Piaget underestimatd the impact of the social and cultural environment on cognitive development.
* Piaget overestimated the degree to which people achieve formal operational thought processes.
Criticiss of Piaget's Theory
88
Renee Baillargeon developed a method on visual tasks.
* Infant first watches an expected event, which is consistent with the understanding being tested.
* Infant is then shown an unexpected event.
* If unexpected event event violates the infants understanding of the principals, he should be surprised and look longer at the unexpected event.
* This test has shown that infants as young as 2.5 months display object permanence.
* What infants appear to know depends heavily on how they are tested.
Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of infants and young children.
89
Lev Vygotsky believed that cognitive development is strongly influenced by social and cultural factors.
* Social interactions, especially with older children and adults, play a significant role in a child's cognitive development.
* Zone of proximal development
* Cognitive development is strongly influenced by the skills that are valued and encouraged in a particular environment- Piaget's stages are not as universal and culture-free as researchers once believed.
Piaget underestimated the impact o the social and cultural environment on cognitive development.
90
In Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, the difference between what children can accomplish on their own and what they can accomplish with the help of others who are more competent.
Zone of Proximal Development
91
* Many adults show abstract-hypothetical thinking only in limited areas
* Some adults never show formal operational thinking
* Formal operational thinking may not be a universal phenomenon but the product of an individual's expertise in a specific area.
* Some scientists suggest information-processing model of cognitive development.
Piaget overestimated the degree to which people achieve formal operational thought processes.
92
The model that views cognitive development as a process that is continuous over the lifespan and that studies that development of basic mental processes such as attention, memory, and problem solving.
Information-Processing Model of Cognitive Development
93
The transitional stage between late childhood and the beginning of adulthood, during which sexual maturity is reached.
* Generally begins around age 11-12, but can vary by individual, culture, and gender.
* Females are generally 2 years ahead of males
Adolescence
94
The stage of adolesence in which an individual reaches sexual maturity and becomes physiologically capable of sexual reproduction.
* Early adolescence
* Changes may not happen evenly, but even out towards the end of adolescence.
Puberty
95
Sexual organs that are directly involved in reproduction, such as the uterus, ovaries, penis, and testicles.
* Enlarge during puberty
Primary Sex Characteristics
96
Sexual characteristics that develop during puberty and are not directly involved in reproduction but differentiate between the sexes.
* Male facial hair, female breasts
Secondary Sex Characteristics
97
* Ovaries increase production of estrogen and progesterone- age 9
* Internal sex organs begin to grow larger- age 9 and a half
* Breasts development begins- age 10
* Peak height spurt- age 12
* Peak muscle and organ growth, including widening of hips- age 12 and a half
* Menarche- age 12 and a half
* First ovulation (release of fertile egg)- age 13 and a half
Female Sequence of Puberty
98
* Testes increase production of testosterone- age 10
* External sex organ begin to grow larger - age 11
* Production of sperm and first ejaculation- age 13
* Peak height spurt- age 14
* Peak muscle and organ growth, including broadening of shoulders- age 14 and a half
* Voice lowers- age 15
* Facial hair appears- age 16
Male Sequence of Puberty
99
The period of accelerated growth during puberty, involving rapid increases in height and weight.
* Not uncommon for girls to be heavier and taller than males
Adolescent Growth Spurt
100
A female's first menstrual period, which occurs during puberty.
* Typically age 11-12, but can occur as early as ages 9-10 or 16 or 17.
Menarche
101
* Girls usually experience menarche at about the same age as their mothers
* Timing closer in identical twins than in non-twin siblings
* Nutrition- well nourished begin earlier
* Health- healthy begin earlier
* Body size
* Degree of physical activity
* Absence of biological father in the home
* Stressful home environment
Factors Affecting the Timing of Puberty
102
* Stress- teasing, social isolation, exlcusion from social activities
* Girls who develop early and boys who develop late have the most problems
Effects of Early Versus Late Maturation
103
* If parent-child relationship is good before adolescence, they continue to be smooth during adolescence.
* Relationships with peers and friends become increasingly important.
* Susceptibility to peer influence peaks during early adolescence (can be positive or negative)
* Romantic and sexual relationships become increasingly important- when and why they occur is influenced by social and cultural factors.
Social Development
104
A person's sense of self, including his or her memories, experiences, and the values and beliefs that guide his or her behavior.
* Continues throughout the lifespan
* Some aspects are determined by characteristics that the individual cannot control (gender, race, ethnic background, socioeconomic level).
* Social acceptance by peers, academic and atheletic abilities, work abilities, personal appearance, romantic appeal
* Independent of their parents while retaining a sense of connection to their family
Identity
105
Proposed that each of eight stages of life is associated with a particular psychosocial conflict that can be resolved in either a positive or negative direction.
* Identity versus role confusion
* Begins with role confusion, then moratorium period, then integrated identity.
Erik Erikson- Identity
106
Characterized by little sense of committement for a variety of issues (religious, moral, political beliefs, relationships, sexualit, long-term committments).
Role Confusion
107
Adolescent experiments with different roles, vales, and beliefs.
Moratorium Period
108
Adolescent arrives here by gradually choosing among the alternatives and making committments.
Integrated Identity
109
The aspect of cognitive development that has to do with how an individual reasons about moral decisions.
Moral Reasoning
110
Used hypothetical moral dilemmas to investigate moral reasoning. Three distinct levels with two stages that represent different degrees of sophistication:
1. Preconventional Stage
* 1. Punishment and obedience
* 2. Mutual benefit
2. Conventional Stage
* 3. Interpersonal expectations
* 4. Law and order
3. Postconventional Stage
* 5. Legal principals
* 6. Universal moral principals
Lawrence Kohlberg
111
Moral reasoning is guided by external consequences. No internalization of values or rules.
* _Stage one: Punishment and Obedience_- "right" is obeying the rules simply to avoid punishment because others have power over you and can punish you
* _Stage two: Mutual Benefit_: Right is an even or fair exchange so that both parties benefit. Moral reasoning is guided by a sense of "fair play."
Preconventional Level (Kohlberg)
Below age 10
112
Moral reasoning is guided by conformity to social rules, and expectations that the person has learned and internalized.
* _Stage 3: Interpersonal Expectations_: Right is being a good person by conforming to social expectations, such as showing concern for others and following rules set by others so as to win their approval.
* _Stage 4: Law and Order_: Right is helping maintain a social order by doing one's duty, obeying laws simply because they are laws, and showing respect for authorities simply because they are authorities.
Conventional Stage (Kohlberg)
Adulthood
113
Moral reasoning is guided by internalizd legal and moral principals that protect the rights of all members of society.
* _Stage 5: Legal principals_: Right is helping protect the basic rights of all members of society by upholding legalistic principals that promote the values of fairness, justice, equality, and democracy.
* _Stage 6: Universal moral principals_: Right is determined by self-chosen ethical principals that reflect the person's respect for ideals such as nonviolence, equality, and human dignity. If these moral principals conflict with democratically determined laws, the person's self-chosen moral principals take precedence.
Postconventional Stage (Kohlberg)
114
* Kohlberg's model is based on ethic of individual rights and justice and is geared towards males
* Gilligan developed a woman's moral development scale based on ethic of care and responsibility
* Men and women both mena nd women use a mix of care and justice perspectives
* In other cultures, other regions other than harm, fairness and justice are equally important, Kohlberg's model is narrowing
Gender, Culture, and Moral Reasoning
115
In industrialized countries, the stage of lifespan from approximately the late teens to the mid-to-late 20's, which is characterized by exploration, instability, and flexibility in social roles, vocational choices, and relationships.
* Starts at a later age than before because of need for additional education or training to join the workforce
* Later ages for marrige- estabish careers and finish education
* Tend to change jobs more often (average is 7)
* Not universal
Emerging Adulthood
116
* Hair begins to thin and turn gray- influenced by genetic heritage (does not mean all heritage is destiny)
* Passage of time can take a toll on the body
* Each decade after 10- organs functional less efficiently- not noticeable until late adulthood
* Physical strength peaks in early adulthood (20-30), declines ater middle adulthood
* Significant horomonal and reproductive changes (menopause late 30s to 50s)
Physical Changes in Adulthood
117
The natural cessation of menstruation and the end of reproductive capacity in women.
* Late 30s to 50s
* Some women may experience unpleasant symptoms such as hot flashes (rapid and extreme increases in body temperature), night sweats, disturbances in sex drive, sleep, eating, eating, weight, and motivation.
* Emotional symptoms: depression, sadness, emotional instability
* Many women experience postmenapausal zest- freed of menstruation, childbearing, and worries about becoming pregnant, energy, freedom and happiness.
* Men experience andropause- decreased levels of testosterone
Menopause
118
* Number of unmarried couples living together has increased dramatically
* More than 30% of children are being raised by a single parent
* Remarriage and starting a new life is not unusual due to high divorce rate
Social Development in Adulthood
119
* Children decrease martial satisfaction and time together with partners (not all couples)- rises again when the children leave the home
* Fundamentally changes your identity as an adult
* Starting parenthood at a later age can ease the transition- more mature
* Career tracks differ (particularly married women who have children)
* Booming kids- adult children returning home after a breif period because of their own economic pressures.
The transition to Parenthood
120
* Average life expectency for men- 76 years, women is 81 years, also seen globally
* Most older adults live healthy, active, and self-sufficient lives
Late Adulthood and Aging
121
* Mental abilities remain relatively stable until about the age of 60, some people may see an improvement in mental abilities related to what we do (jobs and hobbies).
* Ability to speak and understand language tends to remain stable as people age
* When there is a decrease in neuron functioning, the brain tends to compensate in other parts of the brain (at a cost of slower processing)
* Those who are better educated and engage in physical, mental and social activities show the smallest declines
* Dysfunctional social relatinoships can have negative effects
* Greatest intellectual declines tend to occur in older adults with unstimulating lifestyles, such as people who live alone, are dissatisfied with their lives, and engage in few activities
Cognitive Changes
122
* Activity theory of aging
* Caregiving responsibilities can persist well into late adulthood
* Ego integrity
* Despair
* Life review
Social Development
123
The psychosocial theory that life satisfaction in late adulthood is highest when people maintain the level of activity they displayed earlier in life.
* Differ in the level of activity they find personally optimal- reflect lifelong temperamental and personality qualities that continue to be evident as a person ages.
Activity Theory of Again
124
The feeling that one's life has been meaningful.
Ego Integrity
125
A deep sense of disappointment in life.
Despair
126
Thinking about or retelling their life story to others. Often when ego integrity or despair emerge.
Life Review
127
* Attitudes towards death in old age show the same diversity that is relfected in other aspects of adult development.
* Long before reaching old age, each individual has a personal history of thinking about death.
* Feelings and attitudes towards death are influenced by cultural, philosophical, and religious beliefs.
Dying and Death
128
Worries about death peak at this time. Then they decrease in late adulthood.
* At any age, people respond with a wide variety of emotions when faced with the prospect of imminent death.
Middle Adulthood
129
1. **Denial**- deny death is imminent, think their doctors are wrong, or the seriousness of their illness.
2. **Anger**- that they are dying
3. **Bargaining**- try to make a deal with doctors, relatives, or God, promising to behave in a certain way if they are allowed to live.
4. **Depression**
5. **Acceptance**
Did much to sensitize the public and medical community to the emotional experience of dying, though people do not necessarily go through these stages in the predictable sequence she describes.
Kubler-Ross Stages of Dying
130
An individual process must as living is. People cope to this much as they have coped with other stresses in their lives.
Dying
131
* Some older adults react with passive resignation, others with bitterness
* Plunge into activity and focus their attention on external matters, such as making funeral arrangements, disposing of their property, or arranging for the care of other family members.
* Turning inward- searching for the meaning of their life's story
People's Responses to Dying
132
At death, this doesnt just end.
* Each of us leaves behind a legacy of memories in the minds of those who survive us.
* It is the people whose lives we have touched in some way, whether for good or for ill, who will remember us.
* Final chapter is not written by us, but the people whose life stories have intersected with our own.
Our Life Story
