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Mors 200 Arts Final > Chapter 11 Discovering Psychology Notes > Flashcards

Chapter 11 Discovering Psychology Notes Flashcards

1
Q
  • Being alone
  • In the presence of others
  • In front of a crowd of onlookers
A

Social situations

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2
Q

Take a consistent form in diverse cultures

A

Universal

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3
Q

Plays a key role in how you act in perceive and react to others.

A

Sense of self

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4
Q

Based on the premise that certain psychological patterns evolved over hundreds of thousands of years.

  • Adaptive, increasing the odds of survival for humans who displayed those qualities.
  • Increased the genetic transmission of those patterns to subsequent generations
A

Evolutionary psychology

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5
Q
  1. Social cognition
  2. Social influence
A

Two key factors of social psychology

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6
Q
  • how we form impressions of other people
  • How we interpret the meaning of other people’s behavior
  • How our behavior is affected by our attitudes
A

Social cognition

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7
Q
  • Why we conform to group norms
  • What compels us to obey an authority figure
  • Under what circumstances we will help a stranger
  • What leads us to behave in ways that intentionally harm other people.
A

Social influence

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8
Q

Situations that involve interactions between two or more people.

A

Interpersonal context

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9
Q

Largely by looking at people’s faces, regardless of their actual personalities.

  • Evaluate the person’s attractiveness, likeability, competence, trustworthiness, and aggressiveness in a mere tenth of a second.
A

First impressions

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10
Q
  • Interpersonal context
  • First impressions
A

Categories under person perception

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11
Q
  1. Your reactions to others are determined by your perceptions of them, not by who they really are.
  2. Your self-perception also influences how you perceive others and how you act on your perceptions.
  3. Your goals in a particular situation determine the amount and kinds of information your collect about others.
  4. In every situation, you evaluate people partly in terms of how you expect them to act within that particular context.
A

4 key principles that guide person perception and influence your decision

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12
Q
  1. The perceptions we have of others
  2. Our self-perceptions
  3. Our goals
  4. The social norms for that contexts
A

4 components that guiding principals demonstrate

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13
Q

Our first impression can take a while to change, even though they are often wrong. It can color our overall impression of a person.

  • Initial information tends to create a “halo” around a person, and it becomes harder to notice new information that might conflict with the initial judgement.
A

Halo effect

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14
Q
  • Other person’s gender
  • age
  • clothing
A

How you may socially categorize people with a quick glance. - easily observable features

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15
Q

Prior beliefs about different social categories can trigger impulse social reactions ranging from very positive to very negative.

  • ethnicity
  • weight
  • sexual orientation
  • religious beliefs
  • possible evolutionary origins
A

Can trigger implicit social reactions

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16
Q

True or false:

Babies less than a week old spend more time looking at attractive faces than unattractive faces.

A

True - people of all ages tend to agree on facial attractivenes

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17
Q

Mental frameworks

  • influenced by previous social and cultural experiences.
A

Schemas

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18
Q

As a result of cultural conditioning, most people have an implicit personality theory that associates _____ ________with a wide range of desirable characteristics.

A

Physical attractiveness

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19
Q

Perceived as being:

  • More intelligent
  • Happier
  • Better adjusted
  • Sensitive
  • Honest
  • Sociable
  • Assertive
  • Emotionally stable
  • Higher self esteem
  • Also perceived more accurately - people pay more attention to their features
A

Good-looking people

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20
Q

These people do tend to be happier, primarily because they also tended to have improved economic outcomes, such as higher salaries and more successful spouses.

  • receive more favorable treatment from other people such as parents, teachers, employers, and peers.
  • Evoke positive emotional outcomes
A

Attractive people

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21
Q

Relegating someone to a social category on the basis of this ignores that person’s unique qualities.

A

Superficial information -con

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22
Q
  • Natural
  • Adaptive
  • Efficient cognitive process
  • Provide us with considerable basic information about other people
  • Making rapid judgements about strangers is probably an evolved characteristic that conferred survival in our evolutionary past.
A

Social categories pros

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23
Q

You’re much more aware of the extent to which your behavior has been influenced by situational factors.

  • You know more information about yourself in situations than you do about other people in situations.
A

Why there is a discrepancy in accounting for the behavior of others compared to your own behavior.

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24
Q

When people credit themselves for their success.

A

Internal attributions

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25
Q

When people blame their failures on external circumstances.

A

External attributions

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26
Q

Psychologists explain this as an attempt to save face and protect self-esteem in the face of failure.

  • Evolutionary psychologists argue that this leads people to feel and appear more confident than might be justified in a particular situation. If others then perceive us as more confident, we may have more access to resources that allow us to survive and pass on our genes.
A

Self-serving bias

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27
Q

True or false:

The self serving bias is universal.

A

False- It is far from universal.

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28
Q

When you have mixed feeling about an issue, person, or group.

A

Ambivalent

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29
Q
  1. Cognitive component
  2. Affective component
  3. Behavioral component
A

Three components for attitudes

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30
Q

Your thoughts about a given topic or object or object.

A

Cognitive component

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31
Q

Emotional component

A

Affective component

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32
Q

Attitudes are reflected in action.

A

Behavioral component

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33
Q
  • You anticipate a favorable outcome or response from others for behaving that way.
  • Your attitudes are extreme or are frequently expressed.
  • You are very knowledgable about the subject.
  • You have a vested interest in the subject and personally stand to gain or lose something on a specific issue.
A

You are most likely to behave in accordance with your attitudes when:(from: the effect of attitudes on behavior)

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34
Q

Tension

  • This is so unpleasant that we are strongly motivated to reduce it.
A

Dissonance

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35
Q

Perfections

A

Cognitions

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36
Q

Commonly occurs in situations in which you become uncomfortably aware that your behavior and your attitudes are in conflict.

  • Your original attitude versus the realization that your behavior contradicts that attitude.
  • If you can easily rationalize your behavior an make it consistent with your attitude, then your dissonance can quickly and easily be resolved.
  • Since you can’t go back and change your behavior, you change your attitude to match your behavior.
A

Cognitive dissonance

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37
Q

True or false:

The response of the brain showing distress, arousal, emotion and conflicts within seconds after a person makes a decision do not seem to be unique to adults or even humans.

A

True

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38
Q

Cognitive dissonance also influences how we frame decisions we have made when we have chosen between two alternatives.

  • After you make a choice, you emphasize the negative features of the choice you’ve rejected.
A

Commonly called “Sour Grapes” rationalization

39
Q

After you make a choice, you emphasize the positive features to which you have committed yourself to.

A

“Sweet lemons” rationalization

40
Q
  1. People from different groups, such as from a different racial and ethnic groups, are far more alike than they are different.
  2. Any differences that may exist between members of different groups are far smaller than differences among various members of the same group.
A

Two well-established points to keep in mind when talking about prejudice

41
Q
  • Race and ethnicity
  • Sexual orientation
  • Gender identity
  • Religion
  • Age
  • Persons identification with multiple groups
A

Things that people can be prejudiced about

42
Q

Based on the assumption that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group.

  • Typically include qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria that define a given category.
  • Simplify social information so that we can sort out, process, and remember information about other people more easily.
A

Stereotypes

43
Q

Being aware that your social group is associated with a particular stereotype can negatively impact your performance on tests or tasks that measure abilities that are thought to be associated with that stereotype.

A

Stereotype threat

44
Q
  • When stereotypic beliefs become expectations that are applied to all members of a given group, stereotypes can be both misleading and damaging.
  • When confronted with evidence that contradicts a stereotype, people tend to discount that information in a variety of ways.
A

Problems with stereotyping

45
Q
  1. In-group
  2. Out-group
A

Two categories that people have a strong tendency to perceive others as.

46
Q

Not necessarily limited to racial, ethnic, or religious boundaries

A

In-group and out-group categories

47
Q

A computer based test that measures the degree to which you associate particular groups of people with specific characteristics or attributes.

  • sexual orientation
  • Weight
  • Disability
  • Racial and Ethnic groups
  • Also used to measure the strength of stereotyped associations
A

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

48
Q

The psychological study of how our behavior is influenced by the social environment and other people.

A

Social influence

49
Q
  1. Normative social influence
  2. Informational social influence
A

Two basic reasons people find themselves conforming to the larger group.

50
Q
  • Having an alley
  • If competence is questionable
A

Things that lessen conformity

51
Q
  • You are facing a unanimous group of at least 4 to 5 people
  • You must give your response in front of the group
  • You have not already expressed commitment to a different idea or opinion
  • You find the task to be ambiguous or difficult
  • You doubt your abilities or knowledge in the situation
  • You are strongly attracted to a group and want to be a member of it
A

Factors that promote conformity

52
Q

Because these cultures tend to emphasize independence, self-expression, and standing out from the crowd, the whole notion of conformity tends to carry a negative connotation.

A

Individualistic cultures

53
Q

Publicly conforming while privately disagreeing tends to be regarded as socially appropriate tact or sensitivity. Publicly challenging the judgements of others, particularly the judgement of members of one’s in-group, would be considered rude, tactless, and insensitive to the feelings of others.

A

Collectivistic cultures

54
Q

Was one of the most creative and influential researchers that social psychology has known.

  • Best known for his experimental investigations of obedience
A

Stanley Milgram

55
Q

Could a person be pressured by others into committing an immoral act, some action that violated his or her own conscience, such has hurting a stranger?

A

Stanley Milgram’s most critical question

56
Q

Stanley Milgram recruited participants through direct mail solicitations and ads in the local paper. The participants represented a wide range of occupational and educational backgrounds.

  • Outwardly, it appeared that only 2 participants showed up at the same time at Yale University, but the second participant is actually an accomplice working with Milgram.
  • They were told the experiment was to “examine the effects of punishment on learning”
  • Both participants drew a card to determine who was the “teacher” and who was the “learner” (this was rigged - the accomplice was always the learner).
  • The participant, being assigned the role of the teacher, would be responsible for “punishing” the learner via electric shocks (which when up in intensity each time).
  • The teacher and the learner were then taken into different rooms, and the teacher would speak to the learner though a microphone to test the learner on a simple word-pair memory task.
  • The teacher was given the first (and only real) electric shock of 45 volts - just in case there was doubt of the experiment.
  • The experiment would be halted when the teacher refused to obey the experimenter’s orders to continue.
  • The maximum shock level was 450 volts.
A

Milgram’s original obedience experiment

57
Q
  • A previously well-established mental framework to obey.
  • The situation, or context, in which the obedience occurred.
  • The gradual, repetitive escalation of the task.
  • The experimenter’s behavior and reassurances.
  • The physical and psychological separation from the learner.
  • Confidence that the learner was actually receiving shocks.
A

Forces that influenced participants to continue obeying the experimenter’s orders

58
Q
  1. When teachers were allowed to act as their own authority and freely choose the shock level, 95% did not venture beyond 150 volts.
    • 150 volts was the first point that the student protested.
  2. Milgram found that people were more likely to muster up the courage to defy an authority when they saw others do so.
    • more likely to stand by their convictions when they saw that they were not alone in expressing them.
A

Two reasons to take to heart about Milgram’s experiements - when thinking that this experiment shined an unfavorable light on human kind.

59
Q
  • Original study - 68%
  • Experiment conducted in office building instead of university setting. - 48%
  • Teacher and learner in same room - 40%
  • Teacher required to force learner’s hand down on a “shock plate” - 30%
  • Experimenter leaves laboratory and gives orders over the phone. - 23%
  • Experimenter leaves and ordinary man gives orders to continue. - 20%
  • Teacher observes two other teachers rebel and refuse to continue. - 10%
  • Teacher free to choose own shock level - 3%
A

Alternative methods to his experiment - percentages are the decrease in destructive obedience

60
Q
  • The degree to which our behavior is influenced by situational factors.
  • Being at odds with the majority or with the authority figures is uncomfortable for most people - enough so that our judgement and perceptions can be distorted and we may act in ways that violate our conscience.
  • Each of us does have the capacity to resist group or authority pressure. - it’s easy to overlook the fact that some participants refused to conform or obey despite considerable social and situational pressure.
  • We need to emphasize that conformity and obedience are not completely bad in and of themselves.
  • Conformity and obedience are necessary for an orderly society, which is why such behaviors are well instilled in al of us as children.
  • The critical issue is whether the norms we conform to, or the orders we obey, reflect values that respect the rights, well-being, and dignity of others.
A

Important insights to the scientific study of conformity and obedience

61
Q

Fundamentally selfless- the individual is motivated purely by the desire to help someone in need.

A

Altruistic behavior

62
Q

Not necessarily altruistic, help people out of:

  • guilt
  • to gain something such as recognition, rewards, increased self-esteem, or having the favor returned.
  • possible evolutionary causes
  • Actives in the brain structures as rewards
A

Prosocial behavior

63
Q
  1. They must notice an emergency situation
  2. They must interpret it as a situation that actually requires help.
  3. They must decide that it is their responsibility to offer help.
A

Three stages that people must pass through before they offer help:

64
Q
  • The “feel good, do good” effect
  • Feeling guilty
  • Seeing others who are willing to help
  • Perceiving the other person as deserving help
  • Knowing how to help
  • A personalized relationship
  • A dangerous situation
A

Factors that influence the likelihood of helping

65
Q

People who feel good, successful, happy or fortunate are more likely to decide to help others.

  • Good feelings are due to virtually any positive event, such as succeeding at a task or even just enjoying a warm, sunny day.
A

The “feel good, do good” effect

66
Q

We tend to be more helpful when we feel guilty.

A

Feeling guilty

67
Q

We are more likely to help others if we see other people doing the same.

  • True even when we are the recipient of help
A

Seeing others who are willing to help

68
Q

We are more likely to decide to help people who are in need of help through no fault of their own.

A

Perceiving the other person as deserving help

69
Q

Knowing what to do and being physically capable of helping contributes greatly to the decision to help someone else.

  • Some universities offer bystander training
A

Knowing how to help

70
Q

When people have any sort of personal relationship with another person, even at the level of simply making eye contact with someone, they’re more likely to decide to help that person.

  • May explain cyber bullying
A

A personalized relationship

71
Q

Those that are clearly an emergency, those when the perpetrator is present, and those that present a physical risk to the helper.

  • even online, may intervene in cyber bullying when it is more severe
A

A dangerous situation

72
Q
  • The presence of other people- bystander effect
  • Diffusion of responsibility
  • Being in a big city or a very small town
  • Vague or ambiguous situation
  • When the personal costs for helping outweigh the benefits.
A

Factors that decrease the likelihood of bystanders helping

73
Q

In general, people are much more likely to deicide to help when they are alone. If other people are present of imagined, helping behavior declines. (bystander effect)

  • The responsibility to intervene is shared among all the onlookers (diffusion of responsibility). Because no one person feels the pressure to respond, each bystander becomes less likely to help.
  • normative social influence
  • Informational social influence
A

The presence of other people

74
Q

Each of us is motivated to some extent by the desire to behave in a socially acceptable way.

A

Normative social influence

75
Q

Each of us is motivated to some extent by the desire to appear correct.

A

Informational social influence

76
Q

People are less likely to help strangers in big cities, but other aspects of city life, crowding and economic status, also effect helping. On the other hand, people are also less likely to help a stranger in towns with populations under 5,000.

A

Being in a big city or a very small town

77
Q

When situations are ambiguous and people are not certain that help is needed, they’re less likely to decide to offer help.

  • especially reluctant to intervene when the situation appears to be a domestic dispute, because they are not certain that assistance is wanted.
A

Vague or ambiguous situations

78
Q

As a general rule, we tend to weigh the costs as well as the benefits of helping in deciding whether to act. If the potential costs outweigh the benefits, it’s less likely that people will help.

A

When the personal costs for helping outweigh the benefits

79
Q

The be classified as this, the aggressor must believe that their behavior is harmful to the other person, and the other person does not wish to be harmed.

  • Driven by biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
A

Aggression

80
Q

Include genetic, structural, and biochemical explanations.

A

The influence of biology on aggression

81
Q
  • Identical twins have similar aggressive tendencies, whether or not they were raised together. - indicates a strong genetic influence on aggressive behavior
  • evolutionary- can help people to acquire or secure resources for themselves and for those who share their genes.
A

Genetic influence

82
Q

Differences in the part of the brain that regulate emotion, including the amygdala, the prefrontal cortex, and the limbic system.

  • Observed differences in the prefrontal cortex of people who are prone to aggression and angry outbursts.
A

Structural (brain) influence

83
Q

Include the hormone testosterone and alcohol abuse.

  • Out of 96 boys studies from kindergarten through the age 21, found that boys who had higher levels of testosterone over this period were more likely to have criminal records as adults.- not limited to men- there are conflicting studies for this
  • Although most people who consume alcohol are not violent, the rate of violence is higher among those under the influence of alcohol rather than those who have not consumed alcohol.-aggressive person’s level of intoxication was generally related to the severity of the violent act.
A

Biochemical influence

84
Q
  • A great deal of aggressive behavior is learned.
  • frustration
A

Psychological influences on aggression

85
Q
  • Often mimicking behavior they have seen- a form of observational learning.
  • Exposure to violence may lead to aggression over the longer term.
  • Exposure to violence in the media (film, video-game, music lyrics) might increase the likelihood that someone would act aggressively, perhaps mimicking the violence they viewed.
  • Pornography (especially depicting sexual violence) has been linked to increased aggressive attitudes towards women.
A

Learning

86
Q

Driven by situational factors that are annoying or frustrating.

  • high temperatures, even words associated with high temperatures (sun-burn, sweats)
  • global scale
  • Stressful situations or annoying people
  • road rage- typically with younger or male drivers- results from a number of factors, especially frustration, the frustration that results when we perceive inappropriate or reckless driving behavior, when there is heavy traffic, or when we are running late.
  • These factors are even more likely to lead to aggression when we’re already stressed out for other reasons.
A

Frustration

87
Q
  • men are more likely to behave in physically aggressive ways
  • Females are more likely to just as aggressive as men via indirect aggression
  • Environmental factors
  • influenced by reactions of others-
  • More common in certain types of societies. - less economically developed, higher levels of economic inequality, societies that are not democracies
  • concept of a culture of honor
  • masculine honor
A

Socioeconomic factors

88
Q

Aggression related to interactions, such as gossiping and spreading rumors.

A

Indirect aggression

89
Q

One in which actions perceived as damaging to your reputation must be addressed.

A

Culture of honor

90
Q

An emphasis on masculinity and male toughness.

A

Masculine honor

91
Q

A simple, but powerful social norm.

A

Rule of reciprocity

92
Q

Almost anything freely given.

A

Favor

93
Q
  1. Sleep on it
  2. Play devil’s advocate
  3. When in doubt, do nothing.
A

Defending against persuasion techniques

Mors 200 Arts Final (123 decks)

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