Chapter 9 Book Flashcards
1
Q
We expect limb movements to arise from the interaction of ______, ______, and ______ constraints.
A
- individual
- environmental
- task
2
Q
With growth and aging, many _____ _____ constraints change:
A
- individual structural
- length, size, strength of limbs change with growth
- conditions can make manipulative skills difficult as we age
3
Q
Prehension:
A
the grasping of an object, usually with the hand or hands
4
Q
Describe the developmental progression of grasping:
A
- birth: no contact
- 1 month: limited contact
- 2 months: grasp with entire hand
- 3 months: adjust hand position
- 4 months: grasp with thumb on top
- 5 months: grasp with fingers only
5
Q
In early grasping the infant squeezes an object against the palm without the thumb providing ______.
A
opposition
6
Q
Power grips:
A
infant uses the thumb in opposition but still holds the object against the palm
7
Q
Precision grips:
A
- after about 9 months
- infants hold objects between the thumb and one or more fingers
8
Q
Infants transition from ____ to _____ grips.
A
power to precision
9
Q
____ and _____ of objects influence the specific type of grasp used.
A
- shape
- size
10
Q
By ____ months of age infants reliably ____ their hand in anticipation of an object’s shape as they go to grab it.
A
- 9 months
- shape
11
Q
_______, ______, and _____ interact in prehension movements.
A
- individual
- environment
- task
12
Q
Because we can observe precision grip at such a young age, it’s clear that the ____ system must be mature enough at this age to control the ____ ____.
A
- neuromotor
- precision grip
13
Q
Grip used to obtain any particular object depends on the relationship between ____ size and ____ size.
A
- hand
- object
14
Q
Body scaling:
A
adapting characteristics of the task or environment to the overall body size or to the size of a body component
15
Q
With body scaling, the same movement or action can be carried out by individuals of different sizes because….
A
- the ratio of body size to object or dimension is the same
- body-scaled ratio
16
Q
A relatively constant ratio of ____ size to ____ size determined when individuals chose to use 2 hands to pick up an object instead of one, no matter what the age.
A
- hand
- object
17
Q
The interaction of the individual’s ____ constraints with _____ and _____ constraints gives rise to either a one handed or two handed grasp.
A
- structural
- environmental
- task
18
Q
Grasping is a very _____ skill over the life span.
A
stable
19
Q
Infants make a transition during their _____ year from ____ ____ ____ to _____ that allow them to _____ objects.
A
- first
- random arm movements
- reaches
- grasp
20
Q
Prereaching:
A
random and reflexive arm movements
21
Q
There is not a continuous change from _____ to reaching: it seems that infants are not learning to ____ _____ of the hand and arm with ______ of the movement.
A
- prereaching
- reaching
- match vision
- proprioception
22
Q
Infants later rely on vision to when reaching to…
A
refine the path of the reach and configure the hand to the object
23
Q
Learning to reach is a problem of learning to….
A
control the arm
24
Q
To reach objects, infants learn to ____ ___ _____; they learn by ______.
A
- control their arms
- doing
25
Infants exhibit bimanual reaching during the ____ year but cannot perform _____ activities with the 2 hands until the ____ year.
- first
- complementary
- second
26
Between ____ months, infants become more consistent at brining the hand to the ____ rather than to other parts of the _____.
- 3 and 4
- mouth
- face
27
At ___ months, they begin to open the mouth in anticipation of the hand's arrival.
5 months
28
Infants in their first year alternate between periods when _____ reaches predominate and periods when _____ reaches predominate.
- unimanual
| - bimanual
29
Newborns' random arm movements are _____.
asymmetrical
30
The first bilateral movements are .... and are observed at approximately....
- extending and raising the arms
| - 2 months
31
At approximately ___ months, infants can reach for objects with both arms.
4.5
32
`____ ____ can push infants to particular movement patterns.
changing constraints
33
After ___ months, infants start to dissociate simultaneous arm activity so they can manipulate an object cooperatively with both hands.
8 months
34
By ___ months, they can pull things apart.
12 months
35
At the end of the ___ year, infants can perform complementary activities with hands.
second
36
Early in the second year, infants can use ____ flexibly.
tools
37
_____ control is important in reaching.
postural
38
Infants typically sit independently by around _____ months.
6-7
39
Reaching improves when infants are able to maintain ____ _____.
postural control
40
Declining manual performance was associated with ....
loss of strength and upper joint impairment resulting from musculoskeletal disease
41
Compared with younger adults, the older adults could control ____ well but did not _____ their finger and wrist movements as well.
- force
| - coordinate
42
Loss of _____ in movement with aging is a common finding for large and fine motor movements.
speed
43
Interaction of the 3 constraints are as important in ___ motor skills as it is in _____ motor skills.
- fine/manipulative
| - large
44
Some aspects of older adults' reaches ____ ____, putting them at a disadvantage in making _____ movements, but _______ of manipulation is stable, especially on ____ ____ tasks.
- slow down
- sequential
- accuracy
- well known
45
In some ____ motor skills, participants make ____ ____ movements.
- complex
| - rapid aiming
46
Rapid aiming movements involve an _____ and _____ phase from the start of the movement to the point when ____ _____ of the arm movement is reached, then a _____ and ______ phase from peak velocity to the end of the movement.
- initiation
- acceleration
- peak velocity
- deceleration
- termination
47
Young adults tend to make rapid aiming movements ______; that is...
- symmetrically
| - acceleration and deceleration phases are equal
48
Older adults and rapid aiming movements:
- do not begin the movement as forcefully or travel as far in the acceleration phase
- tend to have a longer deceleration phase to compensate (they need more adjustments in the final phase)
49
Rapid aiming movements are involved in tasks requiring ....
monitoring and manipulation of complex displays such as in cockpits
50
Age differences might not be important in.... movements, but may be critical when many _____ movements are needed in a short time.
- single, simple, or self-paced arm movements
| - sequential
51
_____ can compensate for some slowing in rapid aiming movements for older adults.
practice
52
Most common manipulative skill is _____.
catching
53
Catching is relatively _____ as a developmental task.
difficult
54
What aspect of catching makes it difficult?
interception
55
The goal of catching is to..
retain possession of the object you catch
56
Describe initial catching attempts:
- little force absorption
- trapping against chest
- often turn away and close their eyes as ball arrives
- arms rigid
57
To move from novice to proficient catching, a child must:
- learn to catch with the hands (absorbing the ball's force)
- master the ability to move to any direction to intercept the ball
- point the finger up when catching a high ball and down when catching a low one
58
Catching is specific to _____ and _____ constraints.
- environmental
| - task
59
Why is it more difficult to identify developmental sequences for catching skills than for most locomotor or ballistic skills?
because the sequence is specific to the conditions under which the individual performs the skill
60
Many factors are variable in catching, such as:
- ball's size
- ball shape
- speed
- trajectory
- arrival point
61
As catchers improve, they:
- are better able to move their bodies in response to the oncoming ball
- adjust their hands to the anticipated location of the catch
- catch the ball in their hands
62
Catching, like striking, involves ....
- anticipating where a ball can be intercepted
| - the ability to complete the movements that position the hands at that location
63
Children better predict the ball flight as they ____ _____, especially wen the ____ ____ is short.
- get older
| - viewing time (path of the ball)
64
To assess catching skill, _____ and ____ constraints such as ____ _____ and ____ ____ must be tracked and replicated.
- environmental
- task
- ball size
- ball trajectory
65
Catching can be observed from the ____ or ____.
- front
| - side
66
It is easy to assess the product in catching tasks, as you can...
- record a % of balls successfully caught
| - noting the task constraints (size/type of ball used, throwing distance, trajectory of ball)
67
Many manipulative tasks and interception skills involve _____.
anticipation
68
To be successful in anticipation, performers must _____ _____ well ahead of _____ so that the body and hands can be in the proper _____ when the object _____.
- initiate movements
- interception
- position
- arrives
69
Coincidence-anticipation tasks:
motor skills in which one anticipates the completion of a movement to coincide with the arrival of a moving object
70
With the coincidence-anticipation approach, it is easy to vary _____ characteristics and observe the effect on _____.
- task
| - performance
71
Variations in task characteristics influence not only the _____ of performance (a ___ or ___ vs a ____) but also the _____ or _____ _____ used in the task.
- product
- hit or catch vs a miss
- process
- movement pattern
72
The exact pattern of improvement with advancing age depends on _____ constraints in coincidence-anticipation tasks.
task
73
Young children are less _____ as the movement required of them gets more complex. _____ _____ is one task characteristic that influences how well children perform on interception tasks.
- accurate
| - response complexity
74
Children's accuracy _____ if the interception point is farther away.
decreases
75
Young children are more successful at intercepting ____ balls.
large
76
A high trajectory also makes interception more _____ for young children because....
- difficult
| - ball changes location in both horizontal and vertical directions
77
Some ball ____ and ______ combinations influence young children's performance.
- colour
| - background
78
The ____ of the moving object affects coincidence-anticipation accuracy but not in a clear pattern.
speed
79
A faster speed makes _____ more difficult, especially when the object's _____ is short.
- interception
| - flight
80
Children are inaccurate with ____ velocities because...
- slow
| - respond too early (might have difficulty delaying responses)
81
Children can have difficulty adjusting their responses when the _____ of an object in an interception task varies greatly from on repetition to the next. This is particularly true if...
- speed
| - the object's flight is short or the response required is complex
82
Perception-action perspective holds that all the needed information is in the _____, and that no ____ are necessary.
- environment
| - calculations
83
In perception-action, _____ ____ in the _____ specifies the action or movement possibilities of that environment and for specific events.
- meaningful information
| - environment
84
Affordance:
- an action or behaviour provided or permitted for an actor by the places, objects, and events in an environment
- often related to the relative sizes of the actor and the objects
85
Invariance:
stability in the kinematic values of a set of movements (ie keeping patterns in the environment constant)
86
Optic array:
- light waves reverberating from surfaces in the environment
- the stimulus for visual perception
- when movement of environmental objects or of the viewer in the environment occurs, the optic array expends when the movement is toward and constricts when the movement is away
87
Perception-action perspective: it is possible that we use the ____ of _____ of this image on our retinas to know when ____ or ____ will occur.
- rate of expansion
- arrival
- collision
88
Constant bearing angle strategy:
keeping the lateral position of the ball constant with respect to the catcher
89
Catchers are able to intercept balls by ...
keeping certain relationships between themselves and the ball constant
90
Children learn to catch fly balls from different experiences: a catch when one _____ with the ball was seen, but a miss when any other _____ was seen.
- relationship
| - relationship
91
A fielder can adopt the unconscious strategy of.....
continuously moving to stay under the balls' trajectory as viewed
92
Changes in the path for ball can be due to:
- ball spin
- air resistance
- wind
93
With sufficient exposure, children discover the relationship between the _____ and the ______ of a ball and eventually use the relationship when they begin moving for a ball.
- ratio
| - catchability
94
From the perception-action perspective, one role of parents, teachers, and coaches is to help children discover...
the various sources of perception information that constrain movement in interception tasks
95
To improve anticipatory sports skills, training must be:
- sport specific (environment and task specific)
| - focused on the factors known to limit novice performance
96
Whether the individual is a ____ or a _____ ____, manipulating _____ to help the performer identify the important information in the _____ subconsciously ______ the movements that result in success.
- child
- novice adult
- constraints
- environment
- facilitating
97
Factors that might change with catching in older adulthood:
- quickness with which movement is initiated
- maximum speed that could be achieved in moving to the ball
- extent of reach if the catchability of a given ball were at the limit for an individual's speed in moving
98
Coincidence-anticipation research found that older adults are somewhat less _____ and more _____ in their performance than younger performers, and the differences are greater when the moving object moves ____ and when the older adults are _____.
- accurate
- variable
- faster
- sedentary
99
______ of skills are important for maintaining skill.
repetition
100
When task constraints are _____, more ____ movements or movements over distance in a _____ time are required, less older adults are successful.
- larger
- complex
- short
101
Driving is a complex _____ ____ skill involving _____.
- perceptual-motor
| - manipulation
102
Skillful driving depends on _____ (and sometimes _____ or hearing), _____ ____, _____, ______, and _____, all under occasionally _____ conditions.
- vision
- audition
- attentional focus
- experience
- speed
- coordination
- stressful
103
Older adults vs younger adults driving:
- older have more difficulty dividing their attention
- older have more difficulty performing 2 tasks at once
- older take longer to plan movements, slower in executing movements (esp. when speedy movement is needed)
104
____-_____ factors such as _____ and ____ ____ might be more significant factors in poor performance of driving-related motor skills.
- sensory cognitive
- attention
- decision making
105
Effects of aging on airplane piloting performance:
- affected more as task complexity increases
- perceptual aspects of piloting affected
- attention affected
- working memory affected
- expertise on familiar tasks offsets the effects of aging
- highly practiced skills are well maintained
106
An increased number of constraints on a task adds to its _____.
complexity
107
When _____ constraints change with aging, the ______ of constraints can quickly cause the difficulty of _____ and _____ tasks to reach a critical point.
- individual
- interaction
- driving
- piloting
108
_____ with a set of _____ and _____ constraints allows older adults to compensate for slowing of manipulative movements
- experience
- environmental
- task
109
Continued ____ with tasks, whether sport or driving tasks, is important for _____ skill.
- practice
| - maintaining
110
Eventually, decrements in _____-_____ systems, as well as in ____ of movement, lead to a loss of skill.
- sensory-cognitive systems
| - speed
