Chapter 7 Flashcards
1
Q
Locomotion:
A
- The act of moving from place to place
- Complex activity that involves many interacting systems and constraints
- Various methods
- Type might be dependent on interacting constraints
2
Q
Childhood locomotion constraint examples:
A
- height
- weight
- lengths
3
Q
Adult locomotion constraint examples:
A
- motivation
- perceived gender association (skipping is for girls)
4
Q
Old age locomotion constraint examples:
A
- structural constraints: physical characteristics
- functional constraints: fear of falling or loss of balance capability
- environmental constraints: weather changes
5
Q
Individual constraints of infant locomotion:
A
- certain milestones need to be reached:
- lifting head in prone position
- enough strength to support and move themselves
- uncouple limbs
6
Q
Environmental constraints of infant locomotion:
A
- Environment must allow for infant locomotion
- Infant must evaluate the environment to see how well it matches their individual constraints
7
Q
Adolph’s suggestions on environment for infant locomotion:
A
- Surface with continuous path
- Large enough to allow passage
- Sturdy to support body weight
- Firm
- Flat
- Sufficient friction to maintain balance
8
Q
First types of locomotion that infants exhibit are usually ____ and _____, which occur when ____ limbs are in contact with the supporting surface.
A
- creeping
- crawling
- all 4
9
Q
Crawling:
A
infant’s chest and stomach also touch the surface
10
Q
Creeping:
A
only hands and knees touch the surface
11
Q
Progression of skills that lead to creeping and crawling:
A
- Crawling with chest and stomach on floor
- Low creeping with the stomach off the floor but the legs working together (symmetrically)
- Rocking back and forth in the high creep position
- Creeping with the legs and arms working alternately
12
Q
Name another form of quadrupedal gait:
A
walking on hands and feet
13
Q
Walking on hands and feet often emerge because of…
A
- dynamic systems approach
- results from infrequently occurring interactions between constraints
14
Q
What type of constraints lead to walking on hands and feet?
A
- Environmental constraints related to crawling surface may make knee support uncomfortable (eg. gravel, asphalt)
- Reinforcement or response of parent or caregiver
- Above or above average strength and health of the infant
15
Q
What remains the same across the lifetime is the _____ _____ of walking.
A
underlying timing
16
Q
Walking has a ___% phasing relationship between the legs as well as a period of ____ ____, followed by a period of _____ ____.
A
- 50%
- double support (both feet on ground)
- single support
17
Q
In walking, we _____ legs so that the left leg is _____ through its motion as the right leg begins.
A
- alternate
- halfway
18
Q
Walking uses ____ ____ relationships (_____) that appear early in life.
A
- relative timing
- coordination
19
Q
How can walking change?
A
- Individual’s body
- Environment
- Absolute timing (ie. slower or faster)
- Placement (ie. step height or length)
20
Q
In early walking, each step tends to be _____ of the next, with ____ steps and little ____ and ___ ______.
A
- independent
- short
- leg and hip extension
21
Q
Describe what toddlers look like taking their first steps.
A
- flat feet
- toes pointed outward
- spreads feet wide apart (improved lateral balance)
- no use of trunk rotation
- holds arms up in high guards
22
Q
As toddlers continue to develop from their initial walk, what changes in their arms?
A
- arms drop to waist level (middle guard)
- later to an extended position at sides (low guard)
23
Q
In toddlers, it is not common to have an ____ ____, and when they do begin to use it, it is usually…
A
- arm swing
- unequal, irregular
24
Q
Infants have the ability to move their legs in an _____ pattern from birth onward, yet they cannot walk for at least ___ months after birth.
A
7
25
What individual constraints must develop to certain critical levels before the infant can support and move their own weight?
- legs must move alternately
- must have enough strength to support themselves on a single limb
- balance on one leg while transfering weight
- specific rate controlling factors
26
Thelen, Ulrich, Jensen found that:
- Infants must have muscle strength in the trunk and extensor muscles to allow them to maintain an upright posture on a small base of support
- Must also develop balance, or an erect posture or body position, to the point where they can compensate for the shift of weight from one leg to the other
27
Children with Down syndrome often experience delays in motor milestones which leads to delayed onset of _____.
walking
28
One study with walking for infants with Down syndrome showed that...
- treadmill training helped the group rise to a standing position and walk with assistance sooner than the control group could
- walk independently significantly sooner than the control group
29
Balance = ______ stance = _____ base of support
- widening
| - increase
30
Stability = less ______
mobility
31
To take advantage of the principles of motion and stability, once balance increases, we need to...
decrease base of support for mobility
32
Developmental changes in walking that lead to a proficient level:
- absolute stride increases
- planting foot flat on the ground changes to a heel to toe
- reduced out-toeing
- double knee-lock
- pelvis rotation
- balance improves
- oppositional arm swing with movement of the legs
33
Proficient walking: Absolute stride length increasing leads to...
- Greater application of force
- Greater leg extension at push off
- Increased leg length = longer stride
34
Proficient walking: Planting foot flat on the ground changes to a heel to toe leads to...
increased ROM
35
Proficient walking: Reduced out-toeing leads to...
- Narrows base of support laterally
| - Helps keep forces exerted in forward-backward plane
36
Proficient walking: Double knee-lock...
- Assists with full ROM of leg
- Knee extends at heel strike, flexes slightly as body weight moves forward over the supporting leg, and then extends once more at foot push-off
- Knee extends twice in one step cycle
37
Proficient walking: Pelvis rotation leads to...
- Allows full ROM of leg
| - Oppositional movement of upper and lower body segments
38
Proficient walking: Improved balance leads to...
Forward trunk inclination is reduced
39
Proficient walking: Oppositional arm swing with movement of the legs leads to...
- Arms extended at sides
- Principle of action reaction:
(opposite arm and leg move forward and back in unison)
- Arm swing must become relaxed and move from the shoulder, with slight accompanying movement at the elbow
40
Children usually achieve developmental changes in walking by age ___.
4
41
Adolph found that pelvic rotation starts at age ____.
13.8 months
42
Adolph found that knee flexion and midsupport starts at _____ months.
16.3 months
43
Adolph found that foot contact within a trunk-width base of support starts at _____ months.
17 months
44
Adolph found that synchronous arm swing starts at ____ months.
18.0 months
45
Adolph found that heel-forefoot strike starts at ____ months.
18.5 months
46
Length of time for which one foot supports body weight while the other swings forward increases, especially from _____ years of age.
1-2.5
47
_____ length increases through midadolescence, which results in...
- stride
- Fuller ROM at hips, knees, ankles
- Increase in leg length from growth
48
Velocity of walk increases especially between ____ years of age.
1-3.5
49
Rhythm and coordination of walk improves observably until age ____. Beyond this age..
- 5
| - pattern improvements are subtle and probably not detectable by the novice observer
50
Changes that occur between early childhood and older adulthood represent ______ (rather than ______) differences.
- individual
| - universal
51
Adults may change walking patterns over time due to:
- Weight gain or loss
- Changes in strength or balance
- Injury
- Gait training
52
Why can't we predict developmental changes in walking in middle adulthood?
- Change is individualized
| - Based on changing individual constraints
53
Old age developmental changes in walking tend to..
- change in a more predictable way
| - certain individual constraints tend to change more
54
Murray studied:
- gait patterns in older men and women
| - measured linear and rotary displacements and velocity of limbs during walking
55
Murray found that older men walked in a pattern similar to younger men but with these differences:
- Step length of older men was shorter
- Older men toed out more
- Older men had reduced degree of ankle extension
- Pelvic rotation was diminished in older men
56
Why do older adults walk more slowly than younger adults?
- Shorter stride
- Most other aspects remain similar to those of middle aged people
- balance
57
Walking changes with old age might relate to _____ and ____ in various body tissues.
- disease
- injury
- especially those that result in loss of muscle strength
58
Structural constraints in later walking:
- osteoarthritis
| - decline in muscle mass
59
A disease state must progress to a ____ level before it will discourage all _____.
- critical
| - walking
60
Often, older adults modify their gait to accommodate _____ or changes in _____.
- pain
| - balance
61
Functional constraints in walking at older age:
- balance
| - fear
62
If a older person falls while walking =
fear of falling = gait designed to assist with balance (wide base of support, short step length)
63
If a older person has pain while walking =
less inclined to walk long distances = decreases in walking = decrease in muscle mass, flexibility = changed walking patters = less walking
64
Running, like walking, has a ___% phasing relationship between the legs.
50
65
Unlike walking, running has a period of _____, where...
- flight
- neither foot is in contact with the ground
- period of double support never occurs
66
Running is a ____ _____ motor skill than walking.
more advanced
67
Children typically start running about ___ months after they begin to walk.
6-7
68
For a gait to be considered a run, there needs to be a _____ phase.
flight
69
New runners may exhibit some of the characteristics of...
a early walk, even though they don't use it for the walk anymore
70
Some characteristics of early runners that helps simplify the task until they get more experience:
- Wide base of support
- Flat-footed landing
- Leg extension at mid support
- High-guard arm position
71
Running takes ____ and ____.
- strength
| - balance
72
Changes in speed between walking and running = ______ constraint.
task
73
In early running, ____ is limited and ____ ____ is short.
- ROM
| - stride length
74
In early running, arm swings accompany ____ ____ rather than drive ____ and ____.
- trunk rotation
- forward
- back
75
In early running, elbows ____ when they swing back, which is ______ movement.
- extend
| - unnecessary
76
In early running, arm swing out slightly to the ____, which is _____ _____. This aids their _____ ____.
- side
- wasting energy
- unsteady balance
77
In early running, as recovering thigh swings forward, it _____ ______ to the ____ rather than moving straight forward.
inefficiently rotates to the side
78
Since _____ patterns are similar in running and walking, ______ is not likely to be a rate limiter for running.
coordination
79
Running requires ____ phase, and we need sufficient _____ to propel themselves off the ground. Therefore, ____ is an important rate limiter.
- flight
- strength
- strength
80
In running, once they are in the air, they need to _____ themselves on the other leg and ____ on that leg while they shift their weight forward. Therefore ______ is a important rate limiter.
- catch
- balance
- balance
81
Developmental changes that beginning runners make to optimize their performance:
- increase stride length
- elimination of lateral leg movements
- extended running
- elimination of out-toeing
- narrow base of support
- support leg flexes at knee as body's weight comes over the leg
- trunk rotation increases
- arms swing forward and back
82
Optimizing running: increase stride length means...
- Greater force applied
- Rear leg is fully extended at push off
- Heel is close to bum
- Thigh swings forward with greater acceleration
- Thigh comes parallel to ground before foot strike
- Conserve effort when recovery leg is swung forward in tuck position
83
Optimizing running: elimination of lateral leg movements means...
forces are kept in the forward-backward plane
84
Extended running =
- each foot strikes the ground with heel first
| - the forefoot strikes ground in flat pattern
85
Optimizing running: trunk rotation increases means...
- allow for longer stride
- better arm-leg opposition
- trunk leans slightly forward
86
Optimizing running: arms swing forward and back means...
- elbows approaching right angles
| - move in opposition to the legs
87
Qualitative changes + increased body size, strength, coordination =
improved qualitative measures of running speed and time in flight
88
Nelson study:
- Walking and running patterns of older women
| - Walk normally, walk as fast as possible, jog, run as fast as possible
89
Nelson found that older women increased walking speed by..., and increased running speed by....
- lengthening their stride
| - increasing stride frequency
90
Nelson study major differences between younger and older women for fast running:
- Older women didn’t tuck recovering leg as much
- Older women have shorter stride length
- Older women took fewer strides
91
Rate controllers in late running:
- similar to walking
- generation of force
- ability to balance
- might be able to run but not the desire or opportunity (only run in urgent situation)
92
Jumping is typically _____ at young age, often achieve simplest forms before age ___.
- attempted
| - 3
93
Jumping:
Individuals propel themselves off the ground with one or both feet and then land on both feet
94
Hopping:
Individuals propel themselves with one foot and the land on the same foot
95
Leaping:
Individuals propel themselves with one foot and then land on the other foot
96
How to gauge developmental changes in jumping:
- Age at which a child can perform certain kinds of jumping (age norms)
- Distance or height of jump
- Jumping form or pattern
97
How do children learn to jump?
- Children learn to step down off a higher surface from one foot to the other before jumping off the floor with both feet
- Then learn to jump down from progressively greater heights onto both feet
- Then master forward jumps, jumps over objects, hopping
- By school age, children can usually perform all of these jumps
98
2 types of developmental sequences:
- whole-body approach
| - component approach
99
Whole-body approach:
Describes all characteristic positions of various body components in a step
100
Component approach:
Follows each separate body component through whatever number of steps accounts for qualitative changes over time
101
Characteristics of beginning jumpers in both vertical and horizontal jump:
- Most begin with vertical leap, even if they intend for horizontal
- Preparatory crouch is slight
- Legs are not fully extended at liftoff
- Often tucks legs to leave the ground instead of extending
- Do not use a 2 foot (symmetrical) takeoff or landing (even if that’s what they intended)
- 1 foot takeoff/step-out
- legs asymmetrical during flight
- trunk too erect
- lack of coordinated arm action
102
Lack of arm action in early jumping can mean...
- Might use arms asymmetrically, hold them stationary, or keep them in a high-guard position (precaution against falling)
- Arms might wing (extend backward) ineffectively during flight
- Arms might parachute (extend down and out to the side) during landing
103
How can beginner jumpers improve:
- Symmetrical 2 foot takeoff, flight, landing
- Fully extend the ankles, knees, hips at takeoff
- Deep preparatory crouch
- Knees and hips flex together in the flight phase of standing long jump after forceful extension at takeoff
104
When jumping long distance, do these:
- lean trunk forward at least 30 degrees from vertical
- heels up
- appear to tip forward at start of takeoff
- use arms symmetrically to lead the jump from a preparatory extended position to an overhead swing
105
By age ___, children can change trunk angle at takeoff to make either vertical or horizontal.
3
106
Why heels up when jumping long distance?
- Heels need to come off ground before knees start to extend
- Most advanced step in developmental sequence
107
Developmental sequence for arm action in long distance jumping:
- Progresses from no arm action to limited arm swing
- to extension, then partial flexion
- extension, complete arm swing overhead
108
To execute proficient jumps:
- Prep crouch that stretches the muscles, allows legs to apply maximal force as they fully extend for liftoff
- Take off for a horizontal jump with heels coming off the ground, both feet leaving ground at the same time
- Extend arms back, initiate takeoff with vigorous arm swing forward to a position overhead
109
Jumping for height, proficient jumpers direct force ____. How do they do this?
- downwards
- Extend body throughout flight
- Dominant arm reaches up as opposite arm swings down
- Gain height through lateral tilt of shoulders
110
When jumping for height, what do proficient jumpers do with their trunk?
relatively upright throughout jump
111
When jumping for height, proficient jumpers flex...
ankles, knees, hips, on touchdown to absorb force
112
Jumping for distance, proficient jumpers direct force ____. How do they do this?
- down and back
- Begin takeoff with heels leaving ground before knees extend
- Trunk appears to tip forward
113
Jumping for distance, proficient jumpers do what?
- Flex knees during flight, then bring thighs forward to a position parallel with ground
- Swing lower legs forward for 2 foot landing
- Let trunk come forward in reaction to thigh flexing (jackknife position)
- Flex ankles and knees when the heels though ground (absorb momentum)
114
Quantitative improvements of jumping come with ______, and ______ to jumping.
- increased body size and strength
| - refinements
115
Differences between vertical and standing long jump involve ______ and _____ _____.
- position
| - movement speed
116
Differences between vertical and standing long jump:
- Hips more flexed in standing long jump
- Transition from crouch to take off in long jump
- Hips extend faster in long jump
- Knees and ankles extend faster in vertical jump
117
Clark study found that...
- 3-9 year olds and adults used same pattern of leg coordination
- Same pattern for both types of jumps
- Timing of hip, knee, and ankle joint extension at takeoff was similar in all groups
- Neuromuscular system must use a leg coordination pattern that gets body off the ground
- Limb positions and movement speeds change as jumper adapts to the task
118
Zimmerman study found that...
- Many inefficient jumping characteristics in college women:
- Limited arm swing
- Incomplete leg extension at takeoff
119
Rate limiter in 2 foot jumping =
force to bring bodies into the air from a still position
120
Hopping repeatedly:
- Project and absorb body weight with just one limb
| - Maintain balance on small base of support
121
Ineffective hopping:
- Momentarily lifts support leg from floor by flexing it rather than projecting the body up by leg extension
- Swing leg inactive
- Arms inactive
- Legs and arms in first developmental step
122
Proficient hopping:
- Swing leg must lead hip
- Support leg extends fully
- Arms move in opposition to legs
- Support leg must flex at landing to absorb force, prepare for extension at next takeoff
123
_____ age = proficient hoppers
preschool
124
Step 2 hopping:
- flat-footed landing, holds swing leg still
- force of landing rises sharply
- used to jump higher and faster to a point
- landing is too harmful to the body = move on to step 3
125
Step 3 hopping:
- softer landing, swings non hopping leg
- force of landing rises gradually
- soft landing = neuromuscular system prepares ahead of time to moderate force
126
Lightweight child hopping =
produce little force = stationary swing leg
| - can produce more force from stance leg
127
Increases in weight and size in hopping =
increase inertia = increase force required to overcome inertia
128
With increased weight, hopping needs to be modified how?
- Force downwards from stance leg no longer suffices for a hop
- Needs to add swing leg movement for additional force
- Push down on ground, ground pushes back up (Newton’s third law)
- Come down with greater force due to heavier mass
- Must give to land softly
129
Rate controllers in hopping:
- Likely depends on postural system’s ability to balance the body on one limb for a succession of hops
- To hop repeatedly, must be able to generate enough force to lift body with 1 limb, recover, and quickly generate enough force to hop again
- Rate controller: ability to generate force
130
Galloping and sliding:
- Asymmetric gaits
- A step on one foot, then a leap step on the other foot
- Same leg always leads with the step
- Difference: direction of movement
131
Galloping:
more forward
132
Sliding:
more sideways
133
Skipping:
- step and hop on the same foot with alternating feet
| - movement is usually forward
134
Characteristics of early galloping, sliding, skipping:
- arrhythmic and stiff
- arms are rarely involved in projecting body off floor
- arms held either in high-guard or out to the side (balance)
- stride or step length is short
- land flat-footed
- little trunk rotation
- exaggerate vertical lift
135
In early galloping attempts, the _____ leg may land ahead of the ____ leg.
- trailing
| - lead
136
Characteristics of proficient galloping, sliding, skipping:
- rhythmical
- relaxed
- arms no longer needed for balance
- can use arms for other purposes (provide momentum etc)
- forefoot or heel to forefoot landings
- knees give on landing, remain flexed while they support weight, extend at takeoff
137
Out of galloping, sliding, skipping, _____ is first to emerge.
galloping
138
Galloping develops between ____ years old after firm establishment of ____ pattern.
- 2-3 years
| - running
139
Galloping is the first _____ locomotor pattern a child learns.
asymmetrical
140
Since galloping is uneven, steps ____ ____ than the leap-steps.
take longer
141
When galloping, you tend to use one of 2 timing patterns:
- Step takes twice as long as leap step (66-33%)
| - Step takes 3 times as long (75-25%)
142
Out of galloping, sliding, skipping, _____ is second to emerge.
sliding
143
With sliding, you develop the ability to lead with ______ leg much later than ability to lead with ____ leg.
- nondominant
| - dominant
144
Out of galloping, sliding, skipping, ______ is last to emerge.
skipping
145
Skipping develops around _____ years old.
4-7
146
At first, the skipping skill is a _____ ___-___.
unilateral step-hop
147
Unilateral step-hop:
skip with the dominant leg with running step with the other leg
148
Beginner skipper:
- high hop and knee lift
- jerky
- arms used inconsistently (progress to bilateral arm use)
149
Proficient skipper:
- Partially extends leg on the hop
- Lower but smoother knee lift
- Skip is smoother, more rhythmic
- Greater leg strength
- Use arms in opposition to their legs
150
In skipping _____ between legs is symmetrical.
coordination
151
____ view to observe galloping.
- side
152
What to look for when observing galloping:
- Note trailing foot landing in relation to lead foot
- Vertical lift
- Arms
- Lead leg (dom, non dom)
153
____ view to observe sliding.
Front
154
What to look for when observing sliding:
- stiff knees?
- arms stiff?
- dom/non dom
155
What to look for when observing skipping:
- skips with both or just 1 leg
- height of hop, knee lift from side view (lower heights and knee lift = smoother)
- watch arm pattern (bilateral, opposition to leg movement)
156
Galloping generally follows _____ in development of motor skills.
running
157
Rate limiters for galloping:
- must uncouple legs from 50% phasing (rhythmic or coordination changes)
- 2 legs performing different tasks (different amounts of force = changing force coordination)
- rate limiter = coordination
158
Rate limiters for sliding:
- turn to one side
| - neuromuscular system may limit rate at which 2 skills required for galloping and sliding develop
159
Rate limiters for skipping:
- not limited by generation of force for hop (they can hop before they skip)
- balance is not a rate limiter (more difficult to balance while hopping)
- might not appear until neuromuscular system can coordinate 2 limbs as they alternately perform asymmetric tasks
