Chapter 10: Book Flashcards
Sensation:
the neural activity triggered by a stimulus that activates a sensory receptor and results in sensory nerve impulses traveling the sensory nerve pathways to the brain
Perception:
a multistage process that takes place in the brain and includes selecting, processing, organizing, and integrating information received from the senses
Human movement is based on information about the ______ and one’s _____ or _____ in it.
- environment
- position
- location
_____ information and _____ information are highly integrated.
- sensory
- perceptual
What happens when sensory info and perceptual info contradict each other?
- we feel uncomfortable
- stagger, fall, feel sick
Individuals with normally functioning sensory receptors can attach different _____ to the same ______, and even the same individual can interpret a single _____ in different ways.
- meanings
- stimulus
- stimulus
Perception is the process whereby we attach _____ to _____ ____.
- meaning
- sensory stimuli
For individuals to move or act in an environment, they must _____ that environment.
perceive
The sensory-perceptual systems are _____ _____ constraints to movement.
individual structural
Acuity:
sharpness of sight
During the first month of life, the visual system provides the infant with functionally useful but unrefined vision at a level approximately ___% of eventual adult acuity, or _____ on the Snellen scale of visual acuity.
- 5%
- 20/400
The newborn’s resolution of detail is such that she can differentiate ____ ____ from a distance of ____ in.; beyond this, she probably cannot see objects clearly.
- facial features
- 20 in
At about 6 months, infants’ motor systems are ready to begin …
- self propelled locomotion
- their visual systems perceive adequate detail
From the ecological perspective, vision is…
another system that must develop to an adequate level to facilitate locomotion
5 year olds have visual acuity of about _____.
20/30
10 year olds have visual acuity of about ____.
20/20
It is likely that _____ _____ is necessary for the development of vision because _____ of vision during development is known to induce _____ errors in animals.
- visual experience
- deprivation
- refractive
What happens to a person’s vision as they age?
- changes occur naturally
- some conditions/diseases become more prevalent
- changes may affect the quality of visual info that reaches CNS
Any _____ errors resulting from imperfections in ____ ____ of the eye can be corrected with _____ or _____.
- refractive
- axial length
- glasses or contacts
Presbyopia:
- the gradual loss of accommodation power to focus on near objects
- accompanies advancing age
Presbyopia becomes clinically significant around age ____.
40
The resting _____ of the pupil also ______ with aging, typically reducing _____ _____:
- diameter
- decreases
- retinal illuminance: the amount of light reaching the retina
The lens ______ with age, further reducing the amount of _______ reaching the eye and making ____ a problem for older adults.
- yellows
- illuminance
- glare
Visual disturbances that are more prevalent in older adults include:
- cataracts
- glaucoma
- age-related maculopathy
Age-related maculopathy:
a disease affecting the central area of the retina that provides detailed vision
Certain signs that may indicate a visual problem:
- squinting
- under or overreaching for objects
- performing unusual head movements to align one’s gaze with a particular object
People depend heavily on _____ ____ in the performance of most skills.
visual perception
One of the fundamental perceptions is that of ____ ____ space.
three dimensional
What movements depend on 3D space perception?
- almost all movements
- reaching, grasping, locomotion, complex skills (driving, piloting)
Visual sensations are received by _____ ____ in the _____ in approximately a ____ ____ format.
- sensory receptors
- retina
- 2D
To perceive space in 3D, individuals must perceive ____ and _____.
- depth
- distance
Depth perception:
a person’s judgement of the distance from self to an object or place in space
Retinal disparity:
the difference in the images received by the 2 eyes as a result of their different locations
Depth perception is aided by good _____ _____ because a ____ picture from each eye provides more information for the ____.
- visual acuity
- sharper
- comparison
Motion parallax:
the change in optical location for objects at different distance during viewer motion
Objects in space change locations on our _____, and nearer objects _____ more distant objects as the head moves.
- retinas
- overlap
Optic flow:
- change in the pattern of optical texture
- a transformation of the optic array as a viewer moves forward or backward in a stable environment
Optic flow provides much information about ____ _____ nature of our environment.
3D
Optic flow likely guides _____, controls _____, and helps us _____ _____ with objects and surfaces.
- locomotion
- posture
- anticipate contact
Assumption of physical equality:
- used to judge depth
- when 2 like objects can be expected to have the same size but project different relative sizes on the retina, we assume that the object with the larger retinal size is closer to us
Cues about ____ and _____ in our environment are often deprived from the 2 eyes being in different _____ or from movement of the _____.
- depth
- distance
- locations
- head
Most older adults than younger adults fail ___ ____ tests, but thresholds for distinguishing _____ change little if at all.
- depth perception
- depth
Among the important attributes of objects are:
- size
- shape
- motion
The perception of ____ and _____ helps us extract an object or figure from the ____ environment.
- edges
- boundaries
- background
Figure-and-ground perception:
the ability to see an object of interest as distinct from the background
Whole-and-part perception:
the ability to discriminate parts of a picture or an object from the whole, yet integrate the parts into the whole, perceiving them simultaneously
Children improve in figure-and-ground perception tasks between _____ years of age and again between _____ years.
- 4-6
- 6-8
Very young children have difficulty _____ objects that form a ____.
- integrating
- whole
We must perceive that an object has ____ ____ even though it might vary in _____ from us.
- constant size
- distance
Size constancy:
the perception of actual object size despite the size of its image as projected on our retina
Shape constancy:
the perception of actual object shape despite its orientation to a viewer
Habituation:
the state of having adapted to a stimulus
One type of form perception is ____ ____.
face perception
Spatial orientation:
the orientation or position of objects as they are located in space or in a 2D drawing
Children at 3 and 4 years of age can learn _____ ____ such as… but they often …
- directional extremes
- high and low
- over and under
- front and back
- call intermediate orientations the same as the nearest extremes
By age 8, most children have learned to differentiate _____ and ____ but may still confuse ____ and ____.
- obliques (various angles)
- diagonals (45 degrees)
- left and right
Individual cortical cells fire according to the ____, _____, and _____ of an object on the retina.
- direction
- location
- speed
The ____ ____ area of the visual cortex is dedicated to processing motion signals.
medial temporal area
Direction of motion is not well perceived until ____ age.
8 weeks of age
Older adults have difficulty perceiving motion at the _____ _____.
detection threshold
Detection threshold:
the point on a continuum at which the energy level is just sufficient for one to register the presence of a stimulus
Infants perceive _____, but ____ and _____ are better perceived with advancing age.
- motion
- direction
- velocity
The kinesthetic or proprioceptive system is important to skill performance because it yields info about the :
- relative position of the body parts in relation to each other
- position of the body in space
- body’s movements
- nature of objects that the body comes into contact with
Proprioceptor:
the collective name of the various kinesthetic receptors located in the periphery of the body
2 types of proprioceptors:
- somatosensors
- vestibular apparatus
Somatosensors:
the receptors located under the skin, in the muscles, at the muscle-tendon junctions, and in joint capsules and ligaments
Vestibular apparatus is anatomy complete at approx. ____ weeks of prenatal life, but its _____ status before birth is unclear.
- 9-12 weeks
- functional
Kinesthetic sensation comes from a variety of _____ _____ throughout the body.
sensory receptors
Muscle spindles (kinesthetic receptor) located where?
muscles
Golgi tendon organs (kinesthetic receptor) located where?
muscle-tendon junctions
Joint receptors (kinesthetic receptor) located where?
joint capsule and ligaments
Spray-type Ruffini endings (kinesthetic receptor) located where?
joint capsule and ligaments
Golgi-type receptors (kinesthetic receptor) located where?
joint capsule and ligaments
Modified pacinian corpuscles (kinesthetic receptor) located where?
joint capsule and ligaments
Vestibular semicircular canals (kinesthetic receptor) located where?
inner ear
Cutaneous receptors (kinesthetic receptor) located where?
skin and underlying tissues
Tactile localization:
the ability to identify without sight the exact spot on the body that has been touched
Children improve in their ability to _____ touches, but little is known about _____ ______ for touch.
- locate
- threshold discriminations
Threshold discrimination:
detecting the smallest gap between 2 points that touh the skin
The perception of tactile localization on the hands and arms seem to be relatively mature by age ____.
6
Body awareness:
- the recognition, identification, and differentiation of the location, movement, and interrelationships of body parts and joints
- refers to a person’s awareness of the spatial orientation and perceived location of the body in environment
One aspect of body awareness…
is the identification of body parts
Laterality:
- a component of body awareness
- specifically, the awareness that one’s body has 2 distinct sides that can move independently
An age-related improvement in the ability to make right-left discriminations occurs between age ____ and age ____.
- 4 or 5
- 10
Young children have difficulty executing a task when …
a limb must cross the midline of the body
Lateral dominance:
the consistent preference for use of one eye, ear, hand, or foot instead of the other, although the preference for different anatomical units is not always on the same side
When infants begin to reach after ___ months, they also demonstrate a hand preference.
hand preference
A hand preference is evident approx. ___ month after _____ ______ first appears.
- 1 month
- bimanual manipulation
If the favoured parts are all on one side of the body, the dominance is termed ____. Otherwise it is called _____.
- pure
- mixed
Although researcher have suggested that ____ ____ is necessary for proper neurological organization, no objective evidence indicates that having a more ______ brain is advantageous.
- pure dominance
- lateralized
Directionality:
the ability to project the body’s spatial dimensions into surrounding space and to grasp spatial concepts about the movements or locations of objects in the environment
Children with a poor sense of _____ typically also have poor _____.
- laterality
- directionality
Individuals obtain most information for directional judgements through _____.
vision
By age 8, children typically use ____ ____ to indicate direction.
body references
Hearing involves:
- external ear
- middle ear
- cochlea of inner ear
The ____ ear develops first and is close to adult form by the _____ prenatal month.
- inner
- third
By ____ ____, the external ear and middle ear are formed.
midfetal life
A newborn’s hearing is imperfect partly because of…
the gelatinous tissue filling the inner ear
Absolute threshold:
the minimal detectable sound that a hearer can sense at least half of the time signal is sounded
Differential threshold:
the closest that 2 sounds can be yet still allow the hearer to distinguish them at least 75% of the time
The absolute threshold is about ____ decibels higher for a newborn than for an adult. This means that a newborn can detect only an average speaking voice when an adult can detect a ______.
- 60
- whisper
Newborns also do not discriminate….. as well as adults can.
- changes in the intensity of sounds
- sound frequencies
The gelatinous material in the inner ear is reabsorbed during the _____ ___ ___ so that hearing improves rapidly.
first postnatal week
Human speech generally is under _____ Hz.
5000 Hz
The infant can hear ___ to ___ pitched voices better than ___ pitched voices.
- low to mid
- high
By ___ _____, infants’ hearing is similar to that of adults.
6 months
More older adults than younger adults suffer from ______.
presbycusis
Presbycusis:
a loss of hearing sensitivity
Some hearing loss might result from ____ _____, but hearing loss often results from…
- physiological degeneration
- lifelong exposure to environmental noise
Older adults cannot hear certain ____ sounds as well.
consonant
Aspects of auditory perception:
- location
- differences between similar sounds
- patterns
- auditory figure and ground
We locate a sound by determining its ____ and ____ from us.
- direction
- distance
Older adults with presbycusis show a notable decrement in the ability to ____ ____.
localize sound
Localization depends on accurate ____ _____ related to the time at which sounds arrive at the ____ ____ and on the _____ ____ in sound.
- auditory sensations
- two ears
- intensity differences
Auditory ____ is not as good in infants as in adults.
acuity
Infants as young as ____ months can discriminate between speech sounds such as p, b, and m.
1-4
Children between ____ years old experience increasing accuracy in recognizing differences in sounds.
3-5
Children continue to refine their auditory discrimination skills until they are at least ___.
13
Age deficits in speech perception are largely a function of…
decline in pure-tone sensitivity
Older adults often make better use of ____ ___ to help their recognition of speech than young adults do.
context cues
Auditory patterns are ____, ____ (____-) ____ sound sequences.
- nonrandom
- temporally (time-)
3 properties of sound give rise to auditory patterns:
- time
- intensity
- frequency
Speech and music have a ____ pattern, and _____ pattern, and a ______ pattern simultaneously.
- temporal
- intensity (loudness or softness)
- frequency (high pitch or low pitch)
Infants as young as ___ months old react to changes in the temporal pattern of a tone sequence.
2-3
At ___ months, infants can perceive changes in the number of groups and in the number of tones in each group.
12
Infants between ___ months can discriminate intensity changes for vowels in a syllable.
5-11
What systems might limit the development of auditory pattern perception?
- auditory system must be developed
- sensory cortex of brain
- cognition
