Chapter 6 Flashcards
In 2010 which Bolivian president was inaugurated for a second term in office and the only president native American ever elected to that position post independence from Spain in 1825
Evo Morales
The day after the official ceremony in the Capital of La Paz, Morales traveled where; which was an impressive empire that flourished in Andean Highlands during 400 and 1000 B.C.E.
Tiwanaku
What happened to Morales once arriving at Tiwanaku?
He was cleansed with holy water and herbs and dressed in a llama wool robe
Who was Pachamama?
She was an Andean Earth goddess
Who was was Tata inti?
Was an Inca sun god.
At beginning of the Common Era, was was the projected total world population?
250 million people, substantially less than the current population of the United States alone.
How was the world’s population distributed among the three supercontinents?
Eurasia was home to 85%
Africa 10%
The Americas 5%
Oceania less than 1%
Which animals weren’t available in the Americas, that naturally were there?
Animals to pull plows or carts or to be ridden in combat
Which animals did Africa lack until contact with Eurasia?
Wild sheep, goats, chickens, horses, and camels.
Metallurgy was more prominent where?
In Eurasia and Africa rather than in the Americas
In the Americas which region was writing limited to?
Mesoamerican region and was most highly developed among the Maya
Where did the Christian faith find a more permanent foothold?
In Ethiopia
What generated a pastoral way of life among some of the Berber peoples of the Western Sahara during the first three centuries c.e.
The arrival of the domesticated camel, probably from Arabia
The Americas and Oceania, by contrast, developed almost wholly apart from this Afro-Eurasian Network until that separation was breached because of what?
By the voyages of Columbus in 1492
What was one environmental feature that set Africa distinctly from everyone else?
It was bisected by the equator, it was the most tropical of the world’s three supercontinents
Which African civilization falling partly within this time period grew up along the East African coast in conjunction with Indian Ocean Trade?
Swahili civilization
Who did the Nubians trade with and fight against and even on one occasion the Nubian Kingdom of Kush conquered them and ruled it for a century?
Egypt, while Nubia borrowed heavily from it they remained distinct and separate civilizations.
Where did Nubia civilization come to center?
ON the southern city of Meroe, where it flourished between 300 B.C.E and 100 C.E.
How was the Kingdom of Meroe governed?
Governed by an all-powerful and sacred monarch, a position held on a least ten occasion by women, governing alone or as co-rulers with a male monarch
How were Meroe queens seen as?
Meroe queens appeared in sculptures as women and with a prominence and power equivalent to their male counterparts.
What economic specialties did the city of Meroe and other urban centers house?
Merchants, weavers, potters, and masons, as well as servants, laborers, and slaves.
What was a prominent industry in Meroe?
The smelting of iron and the manufacturing of iron tools and weapons.
In the rural areas surrounding Meroe what was practiced?
Some combination of herding and farming and paid periodic tribute to the ruler.
What type of agriculture was possible in Meroe?
Rainfall-based agriculture was possible and consequently, farmers were less dependent on irrigation. This meant that the rural population did not need to concentrate so heavily near the Nile as was the case in Egypt.
How did Meroe get its wealth and military power?
Derived in part from extensive long-distance trading connections to the north via the Nile and to the east and west by means of camel caravans
What materials gave Meroe a reputation for great riches in the world of Northeastern Africa and the Mediterranean?
Its iron weapons and cotton cloth, as well as its access to gold, ivory, tortoiseshells, and ostrich feathers
What did they discover in Meroe that was probably seized during a raid on Roman Egypt, which testifies to contact with the Meditteranean world?
A statue of the Roman emperor Augustus
Who was the local lion god, which grew more prominent than Egyptian deities such as Isis and Osiris in Meroe?
Apedemek
While the use of Egyptian-style writing declined what did Meroe replace it with?
A new and still-undeciphered Meroitic script took the place
Why did the Kingdom of Meroe decline in 100 C.E. and the centuries following?
IN part because of deforestation caused by the need for wood to make charcoal for smelting iron.
Why did the Meroe rulers power diminish and the state weaken?
As Egyptian trade with the African interior switched from the Nile Valley Route to the Red Sea, the resources available to Meroe diminished.
Which finished and completely ended the Meroe phase of Nubian civilization?
IN 340s C.E. the neighboring and rising state of Axum took power because of the kingdom’s conquest
In the centuries that followed, three separate Nubian states emerged because of the fall of Meroe but what also penetrated the region?
Coptic (Egyptian) Christianity
For almost a thousand years, Nubia was a Christian civilization, using Greek as a liturgical language and constructing churches in what fashion?
IN the Coptic or Byzantine fashion
After 1300 or so, political division, Arab immigration, and the penetration of Islam eroded this Christian civilization into what?
Eroded the Christian civilization and Nubia became part of the growing world of Islam
If Meroe represented the continuation of an old African/Nubian civilization what did Axum represent?
Marked the emergence of a new one
Where was Axum located?
IN the Horn of Africa in what is now Eritrea and northern Ethiopia
Axum’s strong economic foundation was based on what?
A Highly productive agriculture that used plow-based farming system, unlike most of the rest of Africa, which relied on the hoe or digging stick
What did Axum’s agriculture generate substantial amounts of?
Generated substantial amounts of wheat, barley, millet, and teff, a highly nutritious grain unique to that region
Because of participation in what, Axum had a substantial emergence as a powerful state?
Participation in the rapidly increasing Red Sea and Indian Ocean commerce, which was itself a product of growing Roman demand for Indian pearls, textiles, and especially pepper.
What was the largest port on the East African coast at the time, where a wide range of merchants sought the products of the African interior -animal hides, rhinoceros horn, ivory, obsidian, tortoiseshells, and slaves?
Adulis
What provided a major source of revenue for the Axumite state and the complex society that grew within?
Taxes on trade
The interior capital city of Axum was the center of what?
monumental building and royal patronage for the arts. The most famous structures were huge stone obelisks, which most likely marked royal graves.
What was the language used at court, in the towns, and for commerce in Axum that was derived from Southern Arabia?
Ge’ez
To the Romans, Axum was what?
Axum was the third major empire within the world they knew, following their own and the Persian Empire
Axum was introduced to Christianity in the 4th century as its monarch at the time ____ _____ adopted the new religion about the same time as Constantine did in the Roman Empire.
King Ezana
Who was the king of Axum who introduced Christianity to the region?
King Ezana
Ealy in King Ezana’s reign the coins featured gods derived from southern Arabia, but later on were inscribed with what?
A Christian cross
What Christian Church was distinct to Axum?
Coptic
Although Egypt subsequently became largely Islamic, reducing its Christian community to a small minority, Christianity maintained a dominant position in the mountainous terrain of highland ______ and in the early 21st century still, represents the faith of perhaps __% of the country’s population.
Ethiopia
60%
During the fourth through the sixth centuries C.E., Axum mounted a campaign of imperial expansion that took its forces into the _____ __ _____ and across the Red Sea into ____ in South Arabia
Kingdom of Meroe
Yemen
What is the traditional date for the birth of Muhammad?
571
By 571 an Axumite army, including a number of African War elephants, had reached the gates of _____, but it was a fairly short-lived imperial venture.
Mecca
Why did the Axumite state decline?
Owed partially to environmental changes, such as soil exhaustion, erosion, and deforestation, brought about by intensive farming. Equally important was the rise of Islam, which altered trade routes and diminished the revenue available to the Axumite state.
When the state revived several centuries later where?
Centered farther south on the Ethiopian plateau
IN the Ethiopian plateau emerged what?
The Christian Church and the state that present-day Ethiopia has inherited, but the link to ancient Axum was long remembered and revered
Where in West Africa emerged a remarkable urbanization?
The middle stretches of the Niger River in West Africa
In the 5 centuries after 500 B.C.E what brought people to the middle Niger River?
A prolonged dry period brought growing numbers of people from the southern Sahara into the fertile floodplain in search of more reliable access to water.
What did the people moving along the Niger river bring with them?
Accompanying them were their domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats; their agricultural skills; and their ironworking technologies
What was the most fully studied of the urban clusters that grew up along the middle Niger River which in its high point probably housed more than 40,000 people?
Jenne-jeno
What was the most distinctive feature of the Niger Valley civilization?
The most distinctive feature was the apparent absence of a corresponding state structure
According to leading historians of the Niger Valley civilizations, they were “_____ _______ ______”
“cities without citadels” = complex urban centers that apparently operated without the coercive authority of a state, for archaeologists have found in their remains few signs of despotic power, widespread warfare, or deep social inequalities.
the Niger Valley civilization can be compared to which civilizations?
Norte Chico or the Indus Valley civilization
Iron smithing?
Working with fire and earth (ore) to produce this highly useful metal
Archaeologist Roderick McIntosh, argued what? IN Jenne-jeno
“their knowledge of the transforming arts - earth to metal, insubstantial fire to the mass of iron- was the key to a secret, occult realm of immense power and immense danger”
In Niger River civilization, gradually these urban artisan communities became occupation castes..
whose members passed their jobs and skills to their children and could marry only within their own group
In surrounding rural areas, farmers tilled the soil and raised their animals, but specialization also occurred how?
in food production as various ethnic groups focused on fishing, rice cultivation, or some other agricultural pursuit
A series of distinct and specialized economic groups shared what?
authority and voluntarily used the services of one another, while maintaining their own identities through physical seperation
Why was Jenne-jeno so important?
It was an important transshipment point in this commerce, in which goods were transferred from boat to donkey or vice versa
When do scholars trace the beginning of the Maya people?
To ceremonial centers constructed as early as 2000 B.C.E. in present-day Guatemala and the Yucatan region of Mexico
In Northern Guatemala which archeological site was home to tens of thousands of people, a pyramid/temple said by some to be the largest in the world, and a stone-carved frieze depicting the Maya creation story known as the Popul Vuh.
El Mirador
What is the Maya creation story known as?
Popul Vuh
The Maya combined this mathematical ability with careful observation of the night skies to plot what?
To plot the cycles of planets, to predict eclipses of the sun and the moon, to construct elaborate calendars, and to calculate accurately the length of the solar year
What did Mayan writing record and how was it written?
Carved in stone and written on bark paper or deerskin books, Mayan writing recorded historical events, masses of astronomical data, and religious or mythological texts
In Maya civilization why was it not surprising that early scholars vied Maya civilization somewhat romantically as a peaceful society?
Led by gentle stargazing priest-kings devoted to temple building and intellectual pursuits
Why was the Maya’s cultural achievements a good economic foundation?
The Maya drained swamps, terraced hillsides, flattened ridgetops, and constructed an elaborate water-management system. “almost totally engineered landscape”
The agriculture sustained substantial _______…
elite classes of nobles, priests, merchants, architects, and sculptors, as well as specialized artisans producing pottery, tools, and cotton textiles
Why did scholars realize that their early view of the Maya was wrong and really based on the what?
They realized it was based on city-states, local lords, and regional kingdoms with no central authority, with frequent warfare, and with the extensive capture and sacrifice of prisoners.
How were the larger political units of the Maya Civilization?
Were densely populated urban and ceremonial centers, ruled by a powerful king and on few occasions queens.
What were divine rulers in the Maya civilization?
Divine rulers or “state shamans” were able to mediate between humankind and the supernatural
What was the city of Tikal?
A Mayan city containing perhaps 50,000 people, with another 50,000 or so in the surrounding countryside, by 750 C.E.
As Mayan civilization rose and fell what came along with it?
Fluctuating alliances among them alternated with periods of sporadic warfare; ruling families intermarried; the elite classes sought luxury goods from far away - jade, gold, shells, feathers from exotic birds, cacao - to bolster their authority and status.
What civilization did the Maya closely resemble?
Resembled the competing city-states of ancient Mesopotamia or classical Greece than the imperial structures of Rome, Peria, or China.
Where did Maya civilization persist in to?
Northern Yucatan
Rapid population growth after 600 C.E. pushed totally Maya numbers perhaps to what?
To 5 million or more
Because of the Maya high population in 600 C.E. what problems came along with it?
Soon they were outstripped of available resources, resulting in deforestation and the erosion of hillsides. Under such conditions, climate change in the form of prolonged droughts in the 800s may well have placed unbearable pressures on Maya society
Why was war more common in the 800s C.E. in Maya civilization?
Warfare became more frequent as competition for increasingly scarce land for cultivation became sharper
At roughly the same time as the Maya flourished in the southern regions of Mesoamerica, which giant city was also thriving further north in the Valley of Mexico?
Teotihuacan
What was the estimated population of the city of Teotihuacan?
By 550 C.E. had a population variously estimated between 100,000 and 200,000.
How did the urban complex of Teotihuacan compare to others?
It was by far the largest urban complex in the Americas at the time and one of the six largest in the world
What is unknown of Teotihuacan?
Much about Teotihuacan is unknown, such as its original name, the language of the people, the kind of government that ordered its life, and the precise function of its many deities
How was the city of Teotihuacan impressive?
It had broad avenues, spacious plazas, huge marketplaces, temples, palaces, apartment complexes, slums, waterways, reservoirs, drainage systems, and colorful murals.
What was the name of the street in the city of Teotihuacan, that ran from the main north/south boulevard?
Known as the Street of the Dead, where the grand homes of the elite, the headquarters of state authorities, many temples, and two giant pyramids.
What was one of the names of the pyramids in the city of Teotihuacan and on the Street of the Dead?
known as the Pyramid of the Sun, it had been constructed over an ancient tunnel leading to a cave and may well have been regarded as the site of creation itself, the birthplace of the sun and the moon.
In Teotihuacan on the Street of the Deed, what did they find at the “Temple of the Feathered Serpent”
Archeologists have found the remains of some 200 people, their hands and arms tied behind them; they were the apparently unwilling sacrificial victims meant to accompany the high-ranking persons buried there into the afterlife
Off the main avenues what was the structure of the city of Teotihuacan?
Grid-like pattern of streets lay thousands of residential apartment compounds, home to the city’s commoners, each with its own kitchen area, sleeping quarters, courtyards, and shrines.
What part of the city of Teotihuacan was reserved for foreigners?
At least two small sections of the city were reserved exclusively for foreigners
How were public and private buildings decorated in the city of Teotihuacan?
Buildings, both public and private, were decorated with mural paintings, sculptures, and carvings. many of these words of art display abstract geometric and stylized images.
What did many of the art pieces display in the city of Teotihuacan?
Many of these works of art display abstract geometric and stylized images. Others depict gods and goddesses, arrayed in various forms - feathered serpents, starfish, jaguars, flowers, and warriors.
How was the art of Teotihuacan, unlike that of the Maya?
Teotihuacan art revealed few images of self-glorifying rulers or individuals. Nor did the city have a tradition of written public inscriptions as the Maya did, although a number of glyphs or characters indicate at least a limited form of writing
What does glyphs mean?
Characters which indicated some form of writing used by Teotihuacan
What did one scholar suggest about the comparison between the Maya and Teotihuacan?
“the rulers of Teotihuacan might have intentionally avoided the personality cult of the dynastic art and writing”
What Maya city in the southern highlands, was completely taken over by the Teotihuacan military and organized as a colony?
Kaminaljuyu
During 300 to 600 C.E. how much land was administered by the city of Teotihuacan and seen as part of its borders.
10,000 square miles
In what major lowland Maya city, in the year 378 C.E. were agents of Teotihuacan apparently engineered a coup that placed a collaborator on the throne and turned the city for a time into an ally or a satellite?
Tikal
In the Zapotec capital of ____ _____, for example - murals show unarmed persons from Teotihuacan engaged in what seem to be more equal diplomatic relationships?
Monte Alban
What was the political and military activity of Teotihuacan designed to obtain, either through trade or by tribute?
Food products, cacao beans, tropical bird feathers, honey, salt, medicinal herbs.
Almost a thousand years after its still-mysterious collapse around 650 C.E., the great metropolis was dubbed Teotihuacan, the “___ ____ ___ ___” by the peoples of the Aztec Empire.
“city of the gods”
Which towering mountain chain had many highland valleys, afforded numerous distinct ecological niches, depending on altitude?
The Andes
What did Andean societies generally seed access to?
The resources of this environment through colonization, conquest or trade:
Coastal Regions: seafood
Lower-altitude valleys: maize and cotton
High Plains: potatoes, quinoa, and pastureland for their llamas
Eastern and Western Slope -tropical fruits and coca leaves
What civilization was the most well-known of all the civilizations to take shape in this environment of the Andes?
The Incas, which encompassed practically the entire region, some 2,500 miles in length in the 5th century. Yet the Incas represented only the most recent and the largest in a long history of civilizations in this area.
The coastal region of central Peru had in fact generated one of the World’s First Civilizations, known as what?
Norte Chico, dating back to around 3000 B.C.E.
In both the coastal and highland regions of Peru, what have archeologist uncovered?
Numerous local ceremonial centers or temple complexes, dating to between 2000 and 1000 B.C.E.
Around 900 B.C.E, on village situated in the Andean highlands was called what?
Chavin de Huantar, and became the focus of a religious movement that soon swept through both coastal and highland Peru.
A village called Chavin de Huantar in the Andean highlands became the focus of what?
Became the focus of a religious movement that soon swept through both coastal and highland Peru, aided by its strategic location on trade routes to both the coastal region to the west and the Amazon rainforest to the east.
By 750 B.C.E. the village of Chavin de Huantar had become a town with how many people?
2,000 to 3,000 people, with clear distinctions between an elite class, who lived in stone houses and ordinary people, with adobe dwellings
In Chavin de Huantar how were people distinguished by class?
The elite class lived in stone houses, and ordinary people, with adobe dwellings.
What did an elaborate temple in Chavin de Huantar have?
an elaborate temple complex included numerous galleries, hidden passageways, staircases, ventilation shafts, drainage canals, and distinctive carvings
How was Chavin artwork shown?
their artwork suggests influences from both the desert coastal region and the rain forests. Major deities were represented as jaguars, crocodiles, and snakes, all of them native to the Amazon basin
What did Shamans or priests in Chavin use the San Pedro cactus for, which was native to the Andes Mountains?
it was used for its hallucinogenic properties to penetrate the supernatural world.
In what ways did the Chavin style spread across much of Peru?
Chavin-style temple architecture, sculpture, pottery, religious images, and painted textiles were widely imitated within the region
By 200 B.C.E., the pan-Andes Chavin cult had faded, replaced by a number of regional civilizations, what was one of them?
One of them, the Moche civilization clearly stood out. Dominating a 250-mile stretch of Peru’s northern coast and incorporating thirteen river valleys, flourishing between 100 and 800 C.E.
How was the economy of the Moche people rooted?
IN a complex irrigation system, requiring constant maintenance, which funneled runoff from the Andes into fields of maize, beans and squash and acres of cotton, all fertilized by rich bird droppings called guano.
What did the fields of the Andes produce?
maize, beans, and squash and acres of cotton all fertilized by rich bird droppings called guano
What did Moche fisherman harvest in the millions from the bountiful Pacific?
anchovies
How was Moche governed politically?
Moche was governed by warrior-priests, some of whom lived atop huge pyramids, the largest of which was constructed from 143 million sun-dried bricks.
Moche shaman-rulers in Moche.
often under the influence of hallucinogenic drugs, conducted ancient rituals that mediated between the world of humankind and that of the gods.
In the absence of written texts, these artistic products are the most accessible aspect of Moche life, and much of what scholars know about the Moche world derives from the superb skill of what?
derives from the superb skill of its craftspeople, such as metalworkers, potters, weavers, and painters.
What was the Moche region subject to?
Was subject to drought, earthquakes, and occasional torrential rains associated with El Nino episodes
During the sixth century C.E. what happened to the Moche people, that led to their end in the eighth century C.E.?
During the sixth century C.E. some combination of the envioronmental forces caused extended ecological disruption, which seriously undermined Moche civilization, making them vulnerable to aggressive neighbors and possibly to internal social tensions as well.
What were the interior empires?
Wari and Tiwanaku; provided a measure of political integration and cultural commonality for the entire Andean region, the two states flourished between 400 and 1000 C.E.
Where were Wari and Tiwanaku located and what were their civilizations alike?
Wari in the northern highlands and Tiwanaku to the south.
- Both were centered in large urban capitals marked by monumental architecture and large populations
- Both governments collected surplus food in warehouses in case of famine and drought
- Neither state controlled a continuous band of territory. Adapting to their environment
- Both established colonies at lower elevations to access resources
- Similar religious symbols and images prevailed in both
Religious beliefs of Wari and Tiwanaku were similar with similar religious symbols and images, including the ancient _____ _____ ____.
Andean Staff God, a deity portrayed with a staff in each hand. Versions of this image have been found in Norte Chico, Chavin, and Moche sites as well, suggesting a long-term continuity in the religious culture of the Andean region.
How were Wari and Tiwanaku different in agriculture.
Wari’s agriculture employed an elaborate system of hillside terracing and irrigation, using snowmelt from the Andes. Tiwanaku’s highly productive farming economy, by contrast, utilized a “raised field” system in which artificially elevated planting surfaces in swampy areas were separated by small irrigation canals.
How were Wari and Tiwanaku different in the use of stone and building?
Tiwanaku has become famous for its elaborately fitted stone walls and buildings, while Wari’s tombs and temples were built of fieldstone set in mud mortar and covered with smooth plaster
Despite differences between Wari and Tiwanaku what else did they share?
Despite these differences and a 300-mile common border, little overt conflict or warfare occurred between Wari and Tiwanaku. They did not mingle much. They each spoke their own language, wore different clothing, furnished their homes distinctive goods, and looked to their respective capital cities for inspiration
IN the year 1000 C.E. both Wari and Tiwanaku collapsed, and their impressive cities permanently abandoned. Out of their collapse what came out of it?
What followed was a series of smaller kingdoms, one of which evolved into the Inca Empire that gave to Andean civilization a final and spectacular expression before all of the Americas were swallowed up in European empires from across the sea.
Where did the Incas draw their legacy from?
drew on the legacy of Wari and Tiwanaku, adopting aspects of their imperial models and systems of statecraft, building on the Wari highway system, and utilizing similar styles of dress and artistic expression. Such was the prestige of Tiwanaku centuries after its collapse that the Incas claimed it as their place of origin
How did some societies for example in present-day Kenya organize themselves?
organized themselves without any formal political specialists at all. Instead, they made decisions, resolved conflicts, and maintained order by using kinship structures or lineage principles supplemented by age grades, which joined men of a particular generation together across various lineages
In several areas, such as the region around Lake Victoria or present-day _______, larger and more substantial kingdoms evolved.
Zimbabwe
What happened along the East African coast after 1000 C.E.?
dozens of rival city-states linked the African interior with the commerce of the Indian Ocean basin
How were Bantu-speaking societies less patriarchal than those of established urban-based civilizations?
Bantu-speaking world developed gender systems. Male ironworkers in the Congo River Basin, for example, sought to appropriate the power and prestige of female reproductive capacity by decorating their furnaces with clay breasts and speaking of their bellows as impregnating the furnaces
Among the Luba people of Central Africa…
male rulers operated in alliance with powerful women, particularly spirit mediums, who were thought to contain the spirit of the king. Only a woman’s body was considered sufficiently strong to acquire this potent and dangerous presence.
How did Luba art represent female ancestors?
as “keepers of secret royal knowledge.” and across south-central Africa, a system of “gender parallelism” associated female roles with village life.
A system of “gender parallelism” associated female roles with what?
associated female roles with village life (child care, farming, food preparation, making pots, baskets, and mats), while masculine identity revolved around hunting and forest life (fishing, trapping, collecting building materials and medicinal plants). It was a complementary or “separate but equal” definition of gender roles.
How did the Bantu practice religion?
placed less emphasis on a High or Creator God, and focused instead on ancestral or nature spirits. The power of dead ancestors might be accessed through rituals of sacrifice especially cattle.
Belief in witches was widespread. Diviners, skilled in penetrating the unseen world, used dreams, visions, charms, or trances to identify the source of misfortune.
How were monotheistic religions different from those of the Bantu?
Monotheistic religions thought with their “once and for all” revelations from God, Bantu religious practice was predicated on the notion of “continuous revelation”-the possibility of constantly receiving new messages from the world beyond. Also, monotheistic religions spread, while Bantu religions were geographically confined
How was the terrain of the southwestern region of North America?
An arid land cut by mountain ranges and large basins first acquired maize from its place of origin in Mesoamerica during the second millennium B.C.E.
IN 600 to 800 C.E. when permanent villages came around what did people live in?
People then lived in pit houses with floors sunk several feet below ground level. Some settlements had only a few such homes, whereas others contained twenty-five or more.
In the Americas by 900 C.E., what did many villages also include?
Also included kivas, much larger pit structures used for ceremonial purposes, which symbolized the widespread belief that humankind emerged into this world from another world below.
What did some of the first North American trading networks exchange in the individual settlements?
Exchange that brought them buffalo hides, copper, turquoise, seashells, macaw feathers, and coiled baskets from quite a distant location
What process in North America gave rise to larger settlements and adjacent aboveground structures known as pueblos?
Growing dependence on agriculture, increasing population, more intensive patterns of exchange
The most spectacular of the pueblos took shape where?
IN Chaco canyon in what is now northwestern New Mexico
Between 860 and 1130 C.E., five major pueblos emerged and became known as what?
The Chaco Phenomenon encompassed 25,000 square miles and linked some seventy outlying settlements to the main centers. The population was not large, perhaps as few as 5,000 people.
The largest of the towns in North America during the Chaco Phenomenon was known as “great houses or ______.
Pueblo Bonito, which stood five stories high and contained more than 600 rooms and many kivas.
What do some scholars think the roads were needed from out of Chaco?
Some think the roads, are a “sacred landscape which gave order to the world,” joining its outlying communities to a “Middle Place,” an entrance to the underworld?
Who were among the Chaco elite?
Highly skilled astronomers who constructed an observatory of three large rock slabs situated to throw a beam of light across a spiral rock carving behind it at the summer solstice.
By the 11th century, what had Chaco become a dominant center of production for?
the production of turquoise ornaments which became a major item of regional commerce
How was Chaco not all sweet and light?
Warfare, internal conflict, and occasional cannibalism (a matter of much controversy among scholars) apparently increased in frequency as an extended period of drought in the half century following 1130, brought this flourishing culture to a rather abrupt end.
By 1200 what had happened to Chaco?
The great houses had been abandoned and their inhabitants scattered in small communities that later became the Pueblo people of more recent times
IN the Mississippi River valley they had what?
an independent Agricultural Revolution. By 2000 B.C.E., many of its peoples had domesticated local plant species, including sumpweed, goosefoot, gourds, squashes and artichoke.
Why were they dubbed Mound Builders?
The creation of societies distinguished by arrays of large earthen mounds, found all over the United States east of the Mississippi
What is intriguing about the Hopewell culture?
Burial mounds and geometric earthworks, with pipes, human figurines, mica mirrors, flint blades, fabrics, and jewelry found in the earthworks. Some of the mounds were aligned with the moon with such precision as to mark lunar eclipses.
What practice ultimately but indirectly from Mexico, and gained ground in the Mississippi Valley after 800 C.E. allowing larger populations and more complex societies to emerge?
corn-based agriculture
Where was the dominant center of corn-based agriculture located which flourished from 900 to 1250 C.E.?
Cahokia near present-day St. Louis, Missouri
What was the size of the central mound in Cahokia?
A terraced pyramid of four levels, measured 1,000 feet long by 700 feet wide, rose more than 100 feet above the ground, and occupied fifteen acres. Largest structure north of Mexico.
Evidence from burials and from later Spanish observers suggests that Cahokia and other centers of this Mississippi culture were what?
Were stratified societies with a clear elite and with rulers able to mobilize the labor required to build such enormous structures
How was one high-status male buried in Cahokia?
on a platform of 20,000 shell beads, accompanied by 800 arrowheads, sheets of copper and mica and a number of sacrificed men and women nearby.
A chiefdom found by sixteenth-century Spanish and French explorers, located in southwestern Mississippi known as what?
KNown as the Natchez People; they had paramount chiefs, known as Great Suns, dressed in knee-length fur coats and lived luxuriously in deerskin-covered homes.
With the elite class of “principle men” or “honored peoples” what were commoners come to be known as by the Natchez people?
Referred to as “stinkards”
In the Natchez peoples culture the sharp class distinctions were blunted by what requirement?
That upper-class people, including the Great Suns, had to marry “stinkards.”
What was a common a common symbol seen throughout the eastern woodlands of North America?
A horned serpent, sometimes depicted with wings, and various animal-god representations were widely shared.
Dubbed the _____ _______ ______, the loose networks of connection that generated these similarities grew outward from Cahokia for several centuries, continuing earlier patterns of interaction associated with the Hopewell cultural region?
Southeast Ceremonial Complex
What did the peoples of the Pacific Oceania create?
Enduring human communities without the large cities, states, and empires so prominent in civilization.
When had New Guina been settled?
50,000 years ago when Australia was connected by a land bridge.
By 1200 C.E., people had achieved a presence on every habitable piece of land throughout this enormous region, historians cal what?
“the greatest maritime expansion known to history.”
When settlers’ arrived in the Pacific Oceania, what happened?
They produced an enormous and sometimes devastating environmental impact as humans entered and disrupted bountiful but fragile eco0systems, especially as population grew.
In New Zeland which bird became extinct by around a little after 1200 C.E.
The moa bird with the remains of 90,000 moa at a single butchery.
What easternmost Polynesia Island had come almost to the point of ecological collapse by the time Europeans arrived in the eighteenth century?
Rapa Nui (Easter Island) had the tree coverage gone and many bird species had likewise disappeared.
On the Micronesian island of Pohnpei, how was urban complexity increased?
constructed from stone and coral, served as the ceremonial, administrative, and burial center of a powerful Saudeleur dynasty. Later dubbed the “Venice of the Pacific” containing over ninety small artificial islands, marketplaces, and a large tomb and funerary complex
The Polynesian Tonga Islands witnessed the growing social complexity, by the fourteenth century, with powerful rulers called what, which stood at the head of a royal court.
Tu’i Tonga
Despite the small population of Oceania what is interesting about them?
hundreds of different languages, over 100 on the small island chain of Melanesian Vanuatu alone. But all are part of the Austronesian family of language.
What does tatau mean, which comes from Pacific Islanders?
the practice of the art of body decoration known in english as tattoo
the pattern of diversity and unity found expression in which three major regions in the Pacific?
Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia and within them. Where they relied heavily on the ocean as major food source, and the shells were used as currency and tools.
What sources of food did the three major regions in the Pacific were farmers producing?
They raised pigs, dogs, and fowl, while cultivating taro, a starchy root vegetable. Other crops - yams, sweet potatoes, breadfruit, coconut palms were also cultivated based on availability and conditions
How were Oceanic societies organized?
They were generally organized as chiefdoms, but with considerable variation.
ON small islands, chiefs and priests could hardly be distinguished from anyone else, village council made decisions. I
On Melanesia, so-called “big men,” or locally influential individuals, exercised authority
In New Zealand, the Maori people distinguished among chiefly families, commoners, and slaves derived from prisoners of war
Frequent war among chiefdoms prevented unity
How were women seen in ancient Oceania?
They were considered dangerous and polluting, especially during menstruation and childbirth, and were isolated at those times. Gender roles differed place to place:
In Melanesia, women were actively involved in food production
In Polynesia their labor was directed toward making mats and cloth. Women were accorded high status, and women of chiefly families could exercise power through male relatives
Melanesian women were sharply subordinated to men than their counterparts in other regions of Oceania
How was religious life in Oceania?
Was Pragmatic, designed to protect against harm and to manipulate the spirits or gods in one’s favor. It found expression in two pervasive concepts: mana and tapu
What does mana and tapu mean?
Mana was a spiritual energy or power, associated especially with chiefs and demonstrated by remarkable actions or great success. To maintain the purity of mana, ritual restrictions or prohibitions known as tapu (English as “taboo”) served to make someone or something sacred or elevated far above ordinary.
What did violating a tapu mean?
It could result in death, religion provided supernatural sanctions for political authorities and social elites
Between roughly 1400 and 800 B.C.E. the spread of a distinctive pottery style was known as what spread throughout Melanesia and as far as Tonga and Samoa suggest a widespread pattern of exchange?
Lapita
In Western Micronesia, another system of exchange arose in the Caroline Island chain, with a particuar focus on the island of Yap. What did it involve?
They traded commodities such as sea turtles, coconuts, and breadfruit. in return from yap they received wood for canoes, flint stone, food and powdered turmeric.
In Evo Morales’s speech, what colonial government was he talking about?
He was not talking about when the colonial powers of Spain and Portugal left but instead talking about Non-natives to be in government as most past presidents were of European descent
Which animals did they not have in the Americas?
No Beasts of Burden, they didn’t have chickens, cattle, goats, sheep, horses, camels, etc. No animals for stable food.
What was different between America and Africa when it came to contact with Eurasia?
America had zero contact with Eurasia, while Africa lacking the same animals as the Americas, was partly connected to their world
What were major means of connection between Africa and Eurasia?
Major means of connection were camel caravans the connected the northern Africa, but also the Indian Ocean commerce connected Eastern Africa with Eurasia trade
Where was Axum located?
in Northern Ethiopia
Which civilization took on Christianity thinking first, Axum or Armenia?
Neither, as both took on Christian thinking at the same time
Which types of stones were archeologists able to trace to certain areas to prove that trade was common during this time?
Obsidian and Jade were used by archeologists to track certain human patterns
What was the book that talked about Africa, Americas and Eurasia showing the good and the bad, written by Jared Diamond
Guns, Germs, and Steel
How did the Eurasian animals get into Africa?
Through land-bridges
What did the animals of Eurasia, now in Africa provide for them?
The sheep, goats, chickens, horses, camels, cows, etc. provided both food and labor, as they were Beasts of Burden
What was unique about Iron Metallurgy?
It was lacked in the Americas but at roughly the same time everywhere else, they developed their own use of iron
Why was Mettalurgy so important?
It provided tools like shovels, hoes, picks, swords, etc. from stone, bronze, wood, copper, and iron. Also with the making of weapons in iron, you were able to when more battles. Iron-edged plow made more food, which in turn allowed more people, which meant you were a stronger military force. Blades Define History
How were numbers used in the Americas compared to Eurasia?
In the Americas, they lacked numeracy, while in Eurasia with their larger population density numbers were critical
How did Africa become connected?
Through the use of caravans, they were able to connect with the Roman Empire and Mediterranean Coast, corridor
And with the Indian Ocean Commerce, they became connected with East Africa
Also with caravans, they also became connected with Nubia along the Nile River w/ sub-Sahara Africa.
In the Indian Ocean Commerce, what were the main items sold by East Africa?
Ivory, Gold, and Slaves
What was the Maya city located in present-day Guatemala, that had a temple constructed in the eighth-century c.e., that served as a tomb to ruler Jasaw Chan K’awiil I
Tikal
What are the most iconic artistic representation of Polynesian culture carved from volcanic rocks called, which were huge stone figures?
Moai
What was the Bantu Migration?
In 3000 B.C.E. from Nigeria to Cameroon, east and south it was a gradual movement of the Bantu people. As they spread, diffusion occurred and their way of life, language, herding and farming, and iron all spread. Seen as “foragers” (hunter-gatherers) another name for it.
What were some of the advantages of the Bantu migration?
Spread of agriculture, immunities to animal-borne diseases, and the spread of iron technologies of tools and weapons
Who were the Batwa people also known as pygmies?
They were considered “forest specialists”, as they really understood the forest leaning how to collect honey, medicines from plants, wild game and skins, and elephant products
From the Austronesians what came to Madagascar?
Bananas, sugarcane, and coconut
“Bantuized”-
Newcomers started to accommodate to the culture of the Bantu and now-days most of the African-culture is very Bantu inflicted
What did Luba art show?
It showed heavily on the female reproductive system like Venus figurines, showing their less patriarchial views like the Hunter-gatherers.
What was significant about the Pacific Oceania?
New Guinea was settled 50,000 years ago as people travelled across land bridges becoming the last place to be settled by humans and was considered the “greatest maritime…”
Why did the islands of the Pacific Oceania receive devastating impact to ecological life and left the island vulnerable?
The animals were being killed off, they were chopping down forests too fast which ruined the climate and rats, pigs, and dogs who came with the people on their canoes, ruined the land and became a huge problem
What did they have in Rapa Nui also known as Easter Island?
they had stone heads and a major rodent problem with the whole island rid of its trees because of trees.
What was the civilization of Tonga?
ruled by a powerful rulers called Tu’i Tonga, their widespread military and commercial influence in the central Pacific led some scholars to regard it as an incipient empire, while others view it as a tributary network or a system of economic interdependence.
The spread of what pottery style between 1400 and 800 B.C.E. among the peoples of Oceania which spread throughout Melanesia and as far as Tonga and Samoa suggesting widespread patterns of exchange.
Lapita
What did they find from the island of New Britain off the northeastern coast of New Guinea
Obsidian
What was the island of Yap?
Located in western Micronesia in the Caroline Island chain, the island of Yap was involved in trading commodities such as sea turtles, coconuts, and breatfruit.
From the far eastern edge of Polynesia, sailors had apparently reached the coast of South America and when they returned they had what?
Sweet potatoes and bottle gourds which soon found hold in Rapa Nui.
