Chapter 13 Test Flashcards
Who said, “What he [Vladimir Putin] wants to do, you can just see the lust in his eyes, he wants to re-create the Russian empire, and this move on Crimea is his first step.”
U.S. senator Bill Nelson in March of 2014
Across the immese expanse of Serbia, who consructed what was then the world’s largest terrirtorial empire, making them an Asian as well as a European power?
Russia
Who penetrated deep into Inner Asia, doubling the size of the country whil incorporating millions of new people who practiced Islam, Buddhism, or animistic religions?
Qing dynasty China
What Empire on the south Asian peninsula, brought Hindus and muslims into a closer relationship ever before, sometimes quite peacefully and at other times with great conflict?
Islamic Mughal Empire
Who was Columbus sailing for and what was their focus?
Sailing for Spain and they focused their empire-building efforts in the Caribbean and the mainland, attacking the fragile Aztec and Inca empires
Where did the Portuguese establish themselves?
along the coast of present-day Brazil
In the early 17th century, what countries launched colonial settlements along the eastern coast of north America?
British, French, and Dutch
How did geography provide the Europeans with an advantage to going across the Atlantic?
The countries on the Atlantic rim of Europe were simply closer to the Americas than were any potential Asian competitors
What also helped the Europeans advance into the Americas, once they mastered it?
The fixed winds of the Atlantic blew steadily in the same direction, once they were understood, they provided a far different maritime environment than the alternating monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean
To avoid reliance on Muslim intermediaries, where did impoverished nobles and commoners alike find opportunity and wealth?
In the colonies
Missionaries and others were inspired by what to enlarge the realm of Christendom?
inspired by crusading eal
What were persecuted minorities in search of when coming to the colonies?
To escape their lives and start a new one
People from Europe’s reasons for coming to the colonies can be described in what 4 words?
God, gold, guns, and glory.
What technologies allowed the Europeans to cross the Atlantic and ultimately dominate the Americas?
Their seafaring technology - allowing them to cross the Atlantic (rudder, lateen sail, compass); Their ironworking technology (sword); Gunpowder weapons; Horses
What allowed many of the Europeans to gain allies?
the divisions within and between local societies
Because of their hate for the Aztec Empire, what people allied with Hernan Cortes and the Spanish in an assault on that empire?
Tlaxcalans, former subjects of the Aztecs
A violent dispute between what two brothers rivalry to gain control for the Inca throne, helped the Euroepans invade?
Atahualpa and Huascar
What advantages helped the Europeans ultimately expand their empire? Guns….
Guns, germs, and steel
What was the most significant of European advantages with which Native peoples had no familiarity?
germs and disease
Long isolation from the Afro-Eurasian world and the lack of most domesticated animals meant the absence of what?
acquired immunities to Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles, typhus, influenza, malaria, and later, yellow fever
When Native American peoples came into contact with these European and African diseases they lost up to what percentage of the population?
90 percent
What lady, born around 1505, was the daughter of an elite and cultured family in the borderlands between the Maya and Aztec cultures in what is now southern Mexico?
Malinal (Dona Marina or La Malinche)
Why was Malinal (Dona Marina or La Malinche) sold into slavery?
After her father died and mother remarried, to protect her new brother’s inheritance, Malinal’s family sold her into slavery, coming into the possession of a Maya chieftain in Tabasco on the Gulf of Mexico
After Cortes married Dona Marina off to what other Spanish conquistador?
Juan Jaramillo
How do some scientists link the Little Ice Age to the Great Dying?
That it was a result of the desertion of large areas of Native farmland and ended the burning of forest regions, sparking a resurgence of plant life, which in turn took large amounts of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, out of the atmosphere, contributing to global cooling
What is the term General Crisis?
What scholars call when the Little Ice Age reached its peak in many regions in the mid 17th century.
During the General Crisis what happened?
Irregular rainfall near the equator, creating the Sahara desert; Wet, colt summers reduced harvest dramatically; severe droughts ruined crops in China; these weather conditions brought widespread famines, epidemics, uprisings, and wars in which millions perished
How did the General Crisis effect the Americas?
In central Mexico, heartland of the Aztec Empire, suffered severe drought, sending maize prices up, granaries empty, people dehydrated, and promoted an unsuccessful plot to declare Mexico’s independence
What statue gained a reputation for producing rain?
Our Lady of Guadalupe (seen as a patron saint)
To the colonial societies of the Americas, what did the Europeans and Africans bring with them?
Their germs, plants, animals, and new foods
What new foods did the Europeans and Africans bring to the Americas?
wheat, rice, sugarcane, grapes, and many garden vegetables and fruits, as well as numerous weeds
What new animals did the Europeans and Africans bring to the Americas?
horses, pigs, cattle, goats, and sheep - all of which were new to the Americas
What animal transformed the Americas the most?
the horses
What American food crops spread widely in the Eastern Hemisphere?
Corn, potatoes, and cassava and chilis
In China what foods supplemented the traditional rice and wheat to sustain China’s modern population explosion?
Corn, peanuts, and especially sweet potatoes
What American stimulants were soon used around the world?
Tobacco and chocolate
Where were coffee and tea originally from?
Tea from China and coffee from Ethiopia and Islamic World
What trade brought workers to the colonies and into the sugar and cotton trade?
The Atlantic Slave Trade
What was the enormous network of communication, migration, trade, disease, and the transfer of plants and animals between Eurasia and the Americas called?
The Columbian Exchange
What new revolutions were brought out of the Columbian Exchange?
The Scientific Revolution and Industrial Revolution (pg 563)
What is bullion?
precious metals such as silver and gold formed in bricks
Colonies provided what for the manufactured goods of the “mother country” and supplied great quantities of bullion as well?
closed markets
What allowed Spanish colonists to exchange goods with Spain’s rivals?
piracy and smuggling (most famous pirate was Black Beard)
What additional demands did women have to cope with?
conquest was often accompanied by the transfer of women to the new colonial rulers, and were often distributed
In what legal system was the Spanish Crown granted to particular Spanish settlers a number of local native people form whom they could require labor, gold, or agricultural produce and to whom they owed “protection” and instruction in the Christian faith?
encomienda
What new system replaced encomienda and gave slightly more control by the Crown and Spanish officials?
repartimiento
By the 17th century, what system had taken shape by which the owners of large estates directly employed native workers.
hacienda
Who are peons?
The workers on the states who enjoyed little control over their lives or their livelihood and had low wages, high taxes, and large debts to the landowners
What were Spaniards born in the Americas called?
creoles
What were Spaniards born in Spain called?
peninsulares
What are mixed-race people called in Mexico and Peru?
mestizo - initially the product of unions between Spanish men and Indian women
What were the separate groups that mixed-race people were divided into called?
castas (castes) - based on their racial heritage and skin color
What people were at the bottom of Mexican and Peruvian colonial societies?
the indigenous peoples, known to Europeans as “Indians”
Under Spanish legal codes, Indian women endure what?
some distinctive conditions and were defined as minors rather than responsible adults and they were increasingly excluded from the courts or represented by their menfolk
What foods persisted as the major elements of Indian diets in Mexico?
maize, beans and squash
What revolt in Peru took place in 1780-1781, and was made in the name of the last independent Inca emperor?
The Tupac Amaru revolt
What countries planters along the northeast coast of Brazil dominated the world market for sugar?
Portuguese
Both Andean and Maya women continued to leave personal property to who?
to their female descendants
In the Tupac Amaru Revolt, the wife of the leader, Micaela Bastidas, was referred to as La Coya, the female Inca, evoking what?
the parallel hierarchies of male and female officials who had earlier governed the Inca Empire
What countries turned their Caribbean territories into highly productive sugar-producing colonies?
British, French, and Dutch
What percentage of the African captives transported across the Atlantic ended up in Brazil and the Caribbean?
80 percent or more
The conditions of the labor-intensive sugar estates combined with disease generated what death rate?
perhaps 5 to 10 percent per year, which required plantation owners to constantly import fresh slaves
Te heat and fire from the cauldrons, which turned raw sugarcane into crystallized sugar reminded many visitors of scenes from where?
Hell
What roles did female slaves have in the Americas?
Women made up half of the field gangs that did the heavy work of planting and harvesting sugarcane, and were subject to brutal punishments and received the same rations as their male counterparts, also doing domestic chores
What were the product of Portuguese-African unions called, with as many as forty separate and named groups, each indicating a different racial mixture?
Mulattoes
What sharply defined racial system evolved in North America?
black-Africans, “red” Native Americans, and white Europeans
In what countries were more slaves voluntarily set free by their owners, more than in North America, and free blacks and mulattoes in that country had more economic opportunities than their counterparts in the United States
Brazil
Because the British were the last of the European powers to establish a colonial presence in the Americas, a full century after Spain, they found what?
that “only the dregs were left.” (leftovers)
Where were the Puritans located?
Massachusetts
Where were the Quakers located?
Pennsylvania
What did the new British settlers seek in their new home in the colony?
sought to escape aspects of an old European society rather than to re-create it, as was the case for most Spanish and Portuguese colonists
The Protestant emphasis on reading the Bible for oneself led to greater literacy than Latin America, where 3 centuries of church education still left what percentage of the population illiterate at independence?
90 percent
What percentage of white males in British North America were literate by the 1770s, although women’s literacy rates were somewhat lower?
75 percent
Preferring to rely on what, Britan had nothing resembling the elaborate imperial bureaucracy that governed Spanish colonies?
to rely on joint stock companies or wealthy individuals operating under a royal charter
Where was the Russian Empire originally located?
located on the remote, cold, and heavily forested eastern fringe of Christendom, perhaps an unlikely candidate for constructing one of the great empires of the modern era, but it did precisely that
When did the Russian Empire take shape?
In the three centuries between 1500 and 1800
What offered protection to frontier towns and trading centers as well as to mounting numbers of Russian farmers?
a growing line of wooden forts
In the 7th century how many people did the Russian Empire have?
some 220,000 and spoke more than 100 languages, as they were mostly hunting, gathering, and herding people, living in small-scale societies, without gunpowder weapons
What drew the Russians across Siberia?
opportunity - primarily the “soft gold” of fur-bearing animals, whose pelts were in great demand on the world market
What did Russian authorities demand of their native peoples?
an oath of allegiance by swearing “eternal submission to the grand tsar,” the monarch of the Russian Empire
What did the Russian authorities also demand of their people?
yasak, or “tribute,” paid in cash or in kind
What empress, established religious tolerance for Muslims in the late 18th century and created a state agency to oversee Muslim affairs?
Catherine the Great
What did local Russian people depend on in the markets?
grain, sugar, tea, tobacco, and alcohol
Over the course of three centuries, what lands were incorporated into the Russian state?
Siberia and the steppes, with their people becoming Russified, adopting their ways and converting to Christianity, giving up their hunting and herding ways of life
What played a major role in making Russia one of the great powers of Europe by the 18th century?
wealth of the empire - rich agricultural lands, valuable furs, mineral deposits
Under what leader, did vast administrative changes, the enlargement and modernization of Russian military forces, a new educational system, and dozens of manufacturing enterprises, all take place?
Peter the Great (1689-1725)
What was the newly created capital city of Russia?
St. Petersburg and was to be Russia’s “window on the West”
What people began to grow in the Russian Empire?
non-Russians began to predominate the overall population
Who was Peter the Great’s successor who followed up with further efforts to Europeanize Russian cultural and intellectual life, viewing herself as part of the European Enlightenment?
Catherine the Great - because of this Russians were the first of many peoples to measure themselves against the West and to mount major “catch-up efforts.
What were Russian nobles instructed to do under Peter the Great?
to dress in European styles and to shave their sacred and much-revered beards
While China pushed deep into central Eurasia what were the Mughal Empire and the Ottoman Empire doing?
The Mughal Emire from Central Asia brought much of Hindu South Asia with them and the Ottoman Empire brought Muslim rule to a largely Christian population in southeastern Europe
The Chinese, Mughals, Ottomans, etc. had what impact on Europe’s American colonies?
No impact, nor did they have the same devastating and transforming impact on their conquered people as the Native Americans got, nor did their empires transform the imperial homeland
What dynasty in China undertook the enormous project of imperial expansion?
China’s Qing or Manchu dynasty (1644-1912)
Where was the Qing dynasty originally from?
from Manchuria, north of the Great Wall
For many centuries, what nomadic peoples had the Chinese interacted with, who inhabited the dry and lightly populated regions?
known as Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet (Trade, tribute, and warfare)
What did the Qing dynasty China undertake in in 1680-1760, that brought huge regions under Chinese control?
an eighty-year military effort
What treaty marked the boundary between Russia and China?
the Treaty of Nerchinsk
The Chinese thought of themselves not as an imperial state but spoke of what?
of “unification” of the peoples of central Eurasia within a Chinese state
The region of Central Aisa under Russian or Chinese rule was seen as what to the 19th and 20 century observers?
as backward and impoverished
India’s Mughal empire was the product of Central Asian warriors, who were Muslims in religon and Turkic in culture and who claimed descent from who?
Chinggis Khan (Temujin) and Timur
What provided India with a rare period of relative political unity in the 16th century, as Mughal emperors exercised a fragile control over a diverse and fragmented subcontinent?
Their brutal conquests
Who was Mughal INdia’s most famous emperor?
Akbar, clearly recognized that he needed to accommodate the Hindu majority
What restrictions did Akbar soften that Hindu restricted of women?
encouraging the remarriage of widows, discouraging child marriages and sati
What is sati?
the practice in which a widow followed her husband to death by throwing herself on his funeral pyre
What was Emperor Jahangir’s twentieth and favorite wife?
Nur Jahan, who was widely regarded as the power behind the throne of her alcohol and opium-addicted husband
Akbar imposed a policy of toleration that deliberately restrained what?
ulama (religious scholars) and removing the special tax (jizya)
What did Akbar create that was a religious faith aimed at the Mughal elite and emphasized loyalty to the emperor himself?
his own state cult
What philosopher claimed to be a “renewer” of authentic Islam in his time, strongly objected to this cultural synthesis?
Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi
What emperor reversed Akbar’s policy of accommodation and sought to impose Islamic supremacy?
Emperor Aurangzeb - forbiding dancing girls, the practice of sati, music and dance in court, and prostitution, drinking, and gambling
The Ottoman state’s sultan combined the roles of…
a Turkic warrior prince, a Muslim caliph, and a conquering emperor, bearing the “strong sword of Islam” and serving as chief defender of the faith
What did elite Turkish women have to do after the Turks adoption of Islam?
secluded and often veiled
Women of the royal court had such influence in political matters that their critics referred to them as what?
as “sulnate of woman”
The responsibilty of protecting what holy cities of Islam fell on the Ottoman Empire?
Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem
What is the process of devshirme?
collecting and gathering
The Ottomans seizure of Constantinople, the conquest of the Balkans, their naval power in the Mediterranean, and the siege of Vienna in 1529 and 1683, raised anew…
the specter of a Muslim takeover of all of Europe.
