Chapter 13 Part 2 Flashcards
What sharply defined racial system evolved in North America?
with black Africans, “red” Native Americans, and white Europeans
What countrie’s colonies acknowledged a wide variety of mixed-race groups?
Portuguese and Spanish colonies
In North America, any African ancestry, no matter how small or distant, made a person what?
black
In Brazil, a person of African and non-African ancestry were considered not black but what?
some other mixed-race category.
A light-skinned mulatto who had acquired some wealth or education might well pass as what?
white
What were the northern British colonies?
New England, New York, and Pennsylvania
Where did the Puritans go?
Massachusetts
Where did the Quakers go?
Pennsylvania
What did many of the British settlers seek?
to escape aspects of an old European society rather than to re-create it, as was the case for the Spanish and Portuguese
Most of the land in New England were owned by who?
by nobles and gentry and worked by servants, tenants, and paid laborers
What did the Boston minister, Benjamin Wadsworth in 1712, declare to the colony’s women?
Since he is thy Husband, God has made him the Head and set him above thee.
Women were prosecuted for what crime far more often than their male companions?
fornication
What were some of the unfair treatments women found in the colonies?
The inheritance of daughters was substantially less than that of sons; few girls attended school; and while women were the majority of church members, they could never become ministers
How did British settlers outnumber their Spanish counterparts in 1750?
5 to 1
By the American Revolution what percentage of the colonies were Euroepans?
90 percent
A small Russian state centered on the city of Moscow was located where?
Located on the remote, cold, and heavily forested eastern fringe of Christendom
The new Russian empire gained domination over what?
over the vast tundra, forests, and grasslands of northern Asia that lay to the south and east of Moscow, all the way to the Pacific Ocean. Furthermore, Russians also expanded westward, bringing numerous Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, Belorussians, and Baltic peoples into the Russian Empire
What drew Russians across Siberia?
Opportunity - primarily the “soft gold” of fur-bearing animals, whose pelts were in great demand
When did the Russian Empire take shape?
between 1500 and 1800
Russians demanded what from native people?
an oath of allegiance, who swore “eternal submission to the grand tsar.”
What was the monarch of the Russian Empire called?
the grand tsar
What did the Russians also demand of their people?
yasak, or “tribute,” paid in cash or in kind
What did Siberia do to pay the yasak?
furs, especially the extremely valuable sable
What empress established religious tolerance for Muslims in the late 18th century and created a state agency to oversee Muslim affairs?
Catherine the Great
By 1720, how many Russians lived in Siberia?
700,000
What were the Russian markets?
grain, sugar, tea, tobacco, and alcohol
How did Kazakh herders respond to the pressure put on them to abandon their nomadic ways and to pay fees and permission to cross agricultural lands?
The grass and the water belong to Heaven, and why should we pay any fees?
Intermarriage, prostitution, and sexual abuse resulted in some mixed-race offspring, but these were generally absorbed as what?
Russians
In Siberia and the Steppes what did Russian influence make them?
Russified, adopting the Russian language and converting to Christianity
For Russia, what were bands of fiercely independent warriors consisting of peasants who had escaped serfdom called?
Cossacks - led by Yermak in the 16th century
Among the growing number of non-Russians in the empire, which predominated?
Slavic-speaking Ukrainians and Belorussians
What played a major role in making Russia one of the great powers of Europe by the 18th century?
wealth of the empire- rich agricultural lands, valuable furs, mineral deposits
Under what perons leadership did vast administrative changes, the enlargement and modernization of Russian military, a new educations sytem, and dozens of manufacturing enterprises all take place?
Peter the Great
What was the newly created capital city of Russia and what was it to be?
St. Petersburg was to be Russia’s “window on the West.”
Who was one of Peter the Great’s successors, who followed up with furthor efforts to Europeanize Russian cultural and intellectual life, viewing herself as part of the European Enlightenment?
Catherine the Great
What type of state was Russia?
a highly militarized state, “a society organized for continuous war,”
How did the Russians get their empire?
By absorbing adjacent territories, and they did so at the same time that a modern Russian state was taking place.
WHat did Geoffrey Hosking write about the British and Russia?
The British had an empire, Russia was an empire.”
How long did the Russian Empire remain intact?
Until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991
Who undertook the enormous project of imperial expansion in China?
China’s Qing, or Manchu dynasty (1644-1912)
Where was the Qing dynasty from?
hailing from Manchuria north of the Great Wall
The Chinese had interacted for many centuries with the nomadic people who inhabited where?
the dry and lightly populated regions now known as Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet
What ensured that these ecologically and culturally different worlds were well known to each other, quite unliked the New World “discoveries” of the Europeans?
Trade, Tribute, and Warfare
In the early modern era, the Qing dynasty China undertook in what that brought these huge regions solidly under Chinese control?
an eighty-year military effort (1680-1760)
During the late 17th century, the creation of what substantial state among the western Mongols revived Chinese memories of an earlier Mongol conquest?
Zunghars
In what traty was the boundary between Russia and China marked?
Treaty of Nerchinsk
Qing dynasty’s takeover of central Eurasia was ruled separately from the rest of China through a new office called what?
the Court of Colonial Affairs
Local officials in Chinese colonies often imitated Chinese ways by wearing what?
peacock feathers, decorating their hats with gold buttons, or adopting a Manchu hairstyle that was much resented by many Chinese who were forced to wear it.
What people in China were excused from the taxes and labor service required of ordinary people?
People of noble rank, Buddhist monks and those associated with monostaries
What did the Qing authorities fear about the civilized Chinese?
That the “soft” and civilized Chinese ways might erode the fighting spirit of the Mongols
The Mughal Empire was the product of what?
of Central Asian warriors, who were Muslims in religion and Turkic in culture and who claimed descent from Chinggis Khan and Timur
Who was the Mughal India’s most famous emperor?
Akbar
What did Akbar soften on some of the Hindu restrictions of women?
encouraging the remarriage of widows, discouraging child marriages and sati and persuading merchants to set aside special market days for women?
What does sati mean?
the practice in which a widow followed her husband to death by throwing herself on his funeral pyre
WHat was the twentieth and favorite wife of Emperor Jahangir, who was widely regarded as the power behind the throne of her alcohol and opium-addicted husband?
Nur Jahan
Akbar imposed a policy of toleration deliberately restraining what?
the more militantly Islamic ulama and removing the special tax (jizya) on non-Muslims?
What is Jizya?
a special tax on non-Muslims
What did Akbar construct where he presided over intellectual discussion with representatives of many religions?
a special House of Worship
Who wrote “He associated with the good of every race and creed and persuasion …The professors of various faiths had room in the broad expanse of his incomparable sway?”
Akbar’s son, Jahangir
What did Akbar create that was aimed at the Mughal elite, which emphasized loyalty to the emperor himself?
created his own state cult
What philosopher claiming to be a “renewer” of authentic Islam in his time, strongly objected to this cultural synthesis?
Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi
What is Diwali?
a major Hindu festival
WHat emperor reversed Akbar’s policy of accommodation and sought to impose Islamic supremacy?
emperor Aurangzeb
While Akbar had discouraged the Hindu practice of sati, Aurangzeb did what?
forbade it outright.
The opposition movements of Hindu people did what to the Mughal Empire?
fatally fractured it, especially after Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, and opened the way for a British takeover in the second half of the 18th century.
The Ottoman state was transformed from a small frontier principality to what?
a prosperous, powerful, cosmopolitan empire
The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire combined the roles of a Turkic warrior prince, and what?
a Muslim caliph, and a conquering emperor, bearing the “strong sword of Islam” and serving as chief defender of the faith
From around 1550 to 1650, women of the royal court who had influence in political matters were referred to as what?
sultanate of women.
What are the holy cities of Islam?
Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem
The responsibility and the prestige of protecting the holy cities of Islam, fell on who?
the Ottoman Empire, espousing the Sunni version of Islam, and the Persian Safavid Empire, holding on to the Shia form of the faith
As the Ottoman Empire expanded across Anatolia, its mostly Christian population converted to what?
to Islam as the Byzantine state visibly weakened
What was Constantine renamed to?
To Istanbul, which became the capital of the Ottoman Empire
What is the process of devshirme?
the collecting or gathering
What inspired fear across much of Europe and placed Christendom on the defense?
terror of the Turk
What sixteenth-century French philosopher praised the religious tolerance of the Ottoman sultan in contrast to Christian intolerance?
Jean Bodin
The French government on occasion found it useful to ally with the Ottoman Empire against who?
Their common enemy of Hadsburg Austria, who sold firearms to the Turks
