Unit One Flashcards
spinal cord
long bundle of neurons that carries information to and away from the brain; helps control pain response
peripheral nervous system
made of the nerves and neurons not contained in the brain and spinal cord
allows the brain and spinal cord to communicate with the sensory systems and to control the muscles and glands of the body
divided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems
somatic nervous system
controls the voluntary muscles of the body
involves the sensory pathway and the motor pathway
autonomic nervous system
controls automatic functions of the body (organs, glands, involuntary muscles)
has sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
sensory pathway
sensory neurons carrying information to spinal cord and/or brain
motor pathway
nerves that carry information to voluntary skeletal muscles
sympathetic division
fight or flight functions—reacts to stressful events and bodily arousal
parasympathetic division
eat drink and rest functions—restores body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for day-to-day functioning of glands and organs
endocrine glands
secrete chemicals called hormones into bloodstream
affect behavior and emotions by influencing the activity of the brain and by controlling muscles and organs such as the heart, pancreas, and sex organs
spinal cord reflexes
involve sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons
enable fast, often lifesaving, actions that do not require conscious thought
pancreas
controls level of blood sugar in body by secreting insulin and glucagon
diabetes vs hypoglycemia
too little insulin is diabetes
too much insulin is hypoglycemia (low blood sugar, hungry)
gonads
secrete hormones that regulate sexual behavior and reproduction
ovaries in female and testes in male
ovaries
female gonads
testes
male gonads
adrenal glands
everyone has two, on top of each kidney
has two sections
stress stuff
adrenal medulla
releases epinephrine and norepinephrine when people are under stress
aids in sympathetic arousal
adrenal cortex
produces corticoids
corticoids
adrenal cortex produces over 30 different hormones called corticoids
also called steroids
regulate salt intake, help initiate and control stress reactions, and provide source of sex hormones
cortisol
most important adrenal hormone
released when body experiences physical and psychological stress
important in release of glucose during stress (gives brain energy) and release of fatty acids (gives muscles energy)
neuroscience
the field of study that deals with the structure of the brain and components of the nervous system
neuron
specialized cell in nervous system
send and receive messages within that system
have specialized components
have an electrical charge at rest (resting potential)
are affected by neurotransmitters, chemicals that have an effect on neurons
are separated by a gap called the synapse, when nerve impulse reaches axon terminals, neurotransmitter is released into synaptic space
glial cells
provide physical and metabolic support to neurons
communicate with other cells
specific types have stem cell like properties
myelin
insulates axons and speeds up transmission of neural message
oligodencrocytes
produce myelin in the central nervous system
schwann cells
produce myelin in the peripheral nervous system
how does a neuron work
neuron at rest negatively charged inside and positively charged outside
action potential occurs when positive sodium ions enter into cell, causing a reversal of the electrical charge from negative to positive
as action potential moves down axon toward axons terminals, cell areas behind action potential return to resting state of a negative charge as positive sodium ion are pumped to outside of cell, positive potassium ions rapidly leave
all or none fashion
neurons are either firing at full strength or not firing at all
synaptic vesicles
sac like structures in presynaptic terminal
neurotransmitters
inside a neuron, transmit messages
synapse
fluid filled space between axon terminal and dendrite of another neuron
synaptic gap
fluid filled space between axon terminal and dendrite of another neuron
receptor sites
proteins that allow only particular molecules of a certain shape to fit into it
excitatory synapses
neurotransmitters that turn cells on
inhibitory synapses
neurotransmitters that turn cells off
ACh
first neurotransmitter identified
acetylcholine
at synapses between neurons and muscle cells
stimulates skeletal muscles to contract, slows contractions in heart muscle
curare
a drug used by south american indians on their blow darts, antagonist for ACh
antagonist
a chemical substance that blocks or reduces the effects of a neurotransmitter
agonist
a chemical substance that mimics or enhances the effects of a neurotransmitter
dopamine
neurotransmitter found in brain
can have different effects ex parkinson’s and schizophrenia
seratonin
neurotransmitter in lower brain
excitatory or inhibitory effect
associated with sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite
glutamate
nervous system’s major excitatory neurotransmitter
role in learning and memory
don’t want too much
gamma-aminobutyric acid
neurotransmitter
GABA
most common neurotransmitter producing inhibition in the brain
alcohol is agonist
neuropeptides
can serve as neurotransmitters, hormones, or influence the action of other neurotransmitters
endorphins
pain controlling chemicals in the body
reuptake
neurotransmitters end up back in synaptic vesicles through reuptake, where chemicals are sucked back up into vesicles
enzymatic degradation
enzyme specifically designed to break apart ACh clears the synaptic gap very quickly
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
controls life sustaining functions of body as well as thought, emotion, and behavior
afferent (sensory) neurons
carry messages from senses to spinal cord
efferent (motor) neurons
carry messages from spinal cord to muscles and glands
interneurons
connect afferent neurons to motor neurons
make up inside of spinal cord and much of brain itself
reflex arc
afferent neuron sends pain message up to spinal column where it enters into central area of spinal cord
interneuron in that central area receives message and sends response along efferent neuron
doesn’t need to go to brain
neuroplasticity
the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to experience and even trauma
brain has a great deal
stem cells
can become any cell in the body
can repair damaged or diseased tissue
peripheral nervous system
made of the nerves and neurons not contained in the brain and spinal cord
allows the brain and spinal cord to communicate with the sensory systems and to control the muscles and glands of the body
divided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems
hormones
chemicals secreted by endocrine glands
affect behavior and emotions by stimulating muscles, organs, or other glands
pituitary gland
in brain below hypothalamus
master gland
controls or influences all of other endocrine glands
controls pregnancy, water levels, activity of other glands, important part of feedback system
oxytocin
hormone that controls aspects of pregnancy
involved in reproduction and parental behavior
stimulates contractions of the uterus in childbirth, used to speed up labor and delivery, responsible for milk letdown reflex
milk letdown reflex
contraction of mammary gland cells to release milk for nursing infant
vasopressin
hormone that controls levels of water in our body
helps body conserve water
growth hormone
controls and regulates the increase in size as children grow from infancy to adulthood
pineal gland
in brain, role in biological rhythms
secretes melatonin
melatonin
pineal gland secretes this
helps track day length and seasons
influences seasonal behaviors and sleep-wake cycle
thyroid gland
in neck
secretes hormones that regulate growth and metabolism
secretes thyroxin (regulates metabolism)
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
behavior
all of our outward or overt actions and reactions
mental processes
all of the internal, covert activity of our minds
scientific method
how scientists study psychology
description
observing a behavior and noting everything about it: what is happening, where it happens, to whom it happens, and under what circumstances it seems to happen
explanation
understand or give a reason to
theory
a general explanation of a set of observations or facts
prediction
determining what will happen in the future
wundt
came up with objective introspection
objective introspection
the process of objectively examining and measuring one’s own mental thoughts and mental activities
titchener
came up with structuralism
structuralism
focus of study was the structure of the mind
every experience broken down into individual emotions and sensations
objective introspection can be used on thoughts as well as on physical sensations
james
came up with functionalism
functionalism
how the mind allows people to function in real world—how people work, play, and adapt to their surroundings
influenced by natural selection
educational psychology
studying the application of psychological concepts to education
industrial/organizational psychology
studying the application of psychological concepts to businesses, organizations, and industry
wertheimer
came up with gestalt psychology
gestalt psychology
focus on studying whole patterns rather than small pieces of them
today part of cognitive psychology
influential in therapy (gestalt therapy)
freud
proposed there is unconscious mind in which humans repress all of threatening urges and desires
repressed urges, in trying to surface, create nervous disorders in patients
childhood very important
psychoanalysis
therapy based on freud’s ideas, basis of modern psychotherapy
psychotherapy
process in which a trained psychologist helps a person gain insight into and change their behavior
pavlov
showed that reflex could be caused to occur in response to a formerly unrelated stimulus
dogs salivate at metronome
conditioning: learned or reflexive response, creating this by constant exposure
watson
came up with behaviorism
focus on observable behavior
did little albert experiment, taught him to fear a white rat
behaviorism
ignore whole consciousness issue and focus only on observable behavior—something that could be directly seen and measured
conditioning basis of this
jones
repeated little albert experiment on little peter, counterconditioning too: made him not afraid after making him afraid
psychodynamic perspective
our behavior is a result of our childhood and a drive to fulfill our unconscious desires
behavioral perspective
our behavior is the result of rewards; we stop acting in ways that are punished
humanistic perspective
our behavior is the result of our efforts to fulfill our needs in the best way we can
cognitive perspective
our behavior is the result of our mental processes, thoughts, beliefs, perceptions
sociocultural perspective
our behavior is the result of our environment and culture
all the small layers of culture too
biological perspective
our behavior is due to our brain structure, body chemistry, hormones, genetics
evolutionary perspective
our behavior is the result of natural selection and adaptation
biopsychosocial perspective
engel, combines biology, psychology, and social factors to help explain the person
operant conditioning
skinner, explain how voluntary behavior is learned, behavioral responses that are followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened or reinforced
self-actualization
humans have free will and want to achieve their full potential, humanistic
cognitive neuroscience
includes study of physical workings of brain and nervous system when engaged in memory, thinking, and other cognitive processes
social and cultural psychology
study of groups social roles and rules of social actions relationships
study of cultural norms values and expectations
diffusion of responsibility
tendency to feel that someone else is responsible for taking action when others are present
bystander effect
psychologist
no medical training but has a doctorate degree
works with humans and animals in a variety of different settings
doesn’t prescribe medications
psychiatrist
medical doctor who specializes in diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
can prescribe medication
psychiatric social worker
has training in an area of social work and often has a professional license to practice
nervous system
a network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body
neuroscience
a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and functioning of the brain and the neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue that form the nervous system
biological psychology/behavioral neuroscience
branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning
dendrite
parts of neuron that receive messages from other cells`
axon
fiber attached to the soma
carries messages out to other cells
soma
neuron cell body
axon terminals
responsible for communicating with other nerve cells
tracts
bundles of myelin coated axons in the central nervous system
nerves
bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system
diffusion
ions move from areas of high concentration to low concentration
electrostatic pressure
relative electrical charge when ions are at rest
resting potential
when cell is resting and the electrical potential is in a state of rest
action potential
electrical charge reversal
electrical potential in action rather than at rest
axon hillock
electrical charge reversal starts at part of axon closest to soma
lesioning
electrode (thing wire or pride insulated everywhere but at its tip) surgically inserted into bain, electrical current strong enough to kill off target neurons is sent through tip of wire
ESB
same as lesioning but milder current
electrical stimulation of the brain
DBS
deep brain stimulation
type of ESB, place electrodes in specific deep brain areas and route electrode wires to pacemaker called impulse generator that is surgically implante under collarbone, sends impulses to implanted electrodes, stimulating brain area of interest
TMS
magnetic pulses applied to cortex using special copper wire coils positioned over head, magnetic field stimulates neurons in cortex
rTMS
pulses from TMS in repetitive fashion, longer lasting stimulation
tDCS
scalp electrodes to pass low amplitude direct current to brain, change excitability of cortical neurons below electrodes
CT scan
computed tomography scan
series of X-rays of brain, maps slices of brain with a computer
structural imaging
MRI
magnetic resonance imaging
person in machine that has powerful magnetic field to align hydrogen atoms in brain tissues, radio pulses to make atoms go in particular directions, 3-d image
gray matter vs white matter
gray matter is the outer areas of the brain consisting largely of neurons with unmyelinated axons
white matter is the fiber tracts consisting of myelinated axons
EEG
electroencephalogram
records electrical activity of cortex just below skull using electroencephalograph
small metal disks on scalp, conduct signals
determines which areas of brain active at different tasks
ERPs
event related potentials
allow study of different cognitive stages of processing
multiple EEGs
multiple presentations of stimulus are measured during EEG
MEG
magnetoencephalography
helmet
magnetic fields
PET
positron emission tomography
person injected with radioactive glucose, computer detects activity of brain by looking at which cells are using the glucose
functional MRI
fMRI
computer tracks changes in oxygen levels of blood
can identify which areas of brain are most active during different tasks
medulla
part of hindbrain, controls heartbeat, breathing, and swallowing
pons
part of hindbrain, relays messages between cerebellum and cortex
reticular formation
system of nerves running from hindbrain and through midbrain to cerebral cortex, controlling arousal and attention
cerebellum
part of hindbrain that controls balance and maintains muscle coordination
hindbrain
medulla, pons, reticular formation, cerebellum
limbic system
thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, cingulate cortex
involved in motivation, emotions, memory, and learning
thalamus
part of forebrain, relays information from sensory organs to cerebral cortex
hypothalamus
part of forebrain, regulates amount of fear, thirst, sexual drive, and aggression we feel
hippocampus
role in learning, memory, and ability to compare sensory information to expectations
amygdala
influences motivation, emotional control, fear response, and interpretations of nonverbal emotional expressions
cingulate cortex
primary cortical component of limbic system, involved in emotional and cognitive processing
cortex
cerebral hemispheres, corpus callosum, parietal lobes, frontal lobes, temporal lobes, occipital lobes
cortex
outermost part of brain
cerebral hemispheres
cortex divided into two, left and right
corpus callosum
thick tough band of neural fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain
contralateral organization; ipsilaterally; bilaterally
left brain controls right side of body and vice versa
information transmitted only to one side of brain
information transmitted to both sides of brain
occipital lobe
processes visual information from eyes in primary visual cortex
visual association cortex
in occipital lobe, identifies and makes sense of visual information from eyes
parietal lobes
processes information from skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position
somatosensory cortex
area of neurons in parietal lobe, upside down, touch, temperature, and body position
temporal lobes
contain primary auditory cortex and auditory association area
learning, language, memory, visual information
frontal lobes
higher mental functions—planning, personality, memory storage, complex decision making, language
motor cortex
in frontal lobes
control movements of body’s nervous system
mirror neurons
in frontal lobes, fire when animal performs an action or when animal observes same action being done by another
association areas
neurons in cortex that help people make sense of incoming sensory input
broca’s area
area devoted to speech in frontal lobe
allows person to speak smoothly and fluently
broca’s aphasia: person can’t get words out in a smooth, connected fashion
wernicke’s area
left temporal lobe
involved in understanding meaning of words
wernicke’s aphasia: speak fluently and pronounce words correctly but wrong words
spatial neglect
person with damage to right parietal and occipital lobes of cortex ignores everything in left visual field
cerebrum
upper part of brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures connecting them
split brain
find that left hemisphere controls right hand, spoken language, written language, math, logical thought, analysis, reading
right hemisphere controls left hand, nonverbal, visual spatial perception, music and art, emotions, processes whole, pattern and facial recognition
Procedural memories
Short term memories
Semantic and episodic memories
Formation of new declarative long term memories
Cerebellum
Prefrontal cortex and temporal lobe
Frontal and temporal lobe (different places than short term memories)
Hippocampus
