Translation, Transcription, and Other Notes for Unit 5 Flashcards
(NJCTL) capsid is everything on … of the phage and is made of …
exterior; protein
(NJCTL) In Hershey and Chase’s experiment, bacteria and viruses were mixed to increase the … of phages
concentration
(NJCTL) In Hershey and Chase’s experiment, the bacteria that were mixed with radioactive sulfur viruses were not radioactive because … the bacteria
the capsid doesn’t enter
(NJCTL) A chromosome is an organized structure of … and … found in cells. It is a single piece of … DNA containing many …
DNA; protein; coiled; genes
(NJCTL) The DNA molecule may be … or …, and can be composed of … to over … nucleotides in a long chain.
circular; linear; 100,000; 3,750,000,000
(NJCTL) scaffolding proteins allow for more
coiling
(NJCTL) chromosomes are haploid in … and … cells and are diploid in … cells
egg; sperm; all other
(NJCTL) a karyotype is a … of the actual … of an individual human.
photograph; chromosomes
(NJCTL) Karyotype: a … is isolated and the chromosomes are removed and … They can be used to learn about possible chromosomal …
nucleus; arranged; abnormalities
(NJCTL) A strand of DNA is replicated in segments. At intervals down the DNA molecule, portions of the 2 strands separate creating … Either side of this is known as a ..
replication bubbles; replication fork
(NJCTL) DNA replication is a precise process that must … To do this cells use many enzymes in a complex process that uses … to create new DNA molecules
minimize error; template strands
(NJCTL) PCR (polymerase chain reaction) is a technique which uses the principles of … to amplify the amount of DNA available for testing and manipulation. This reaction is carried out by a special machine that utilizes repeating cycles of …, …, …, and … to build copies of the DNA fragment
DNA replication; heat; DNA polymerase; DNA primers; free nucleotides
(NJCTL) PCR enables small amounts of DNA to be turned into … amounts
large
(NJCTL) PCR works in the following steps:
1. DNA is … to high …, the DNA strands …, separating the double helix
2. DNA is …, … and … in the mixture … to the DNA
3. The temperature is slightly … to increase the rate of … reactions
The cycle is repeated, … the amount of DNA each cycle
heated; temperatures; denature; cooled; primers; polymerase; anneal; increased; replication; doubling
(NJCTL) expressing the information stored on a gene into a protein requires:
… from the 4 letter language of DNA to RNA, then from the 4 letter language of RNA, to the … letter language of proteins (their amino acid sequences)
translating; 20
(NJCTL) The mRNA message is read in 3-letter words called …, each of which codes for an … or tells the process to …
codons; amino acid; stop
(NJCTL) There are … codons, but only … amino acids. So some codons code for the same amino acid
64; 20
(NJCTL) … of the codons code for an amino acid, … of the remaining codons are … codons that do not code for an amino acid. These signal that … is over
… codon that codes for the amino acid … is also the … codon. … is always the first amino acid in a protein
51; 3; stop; translation; 1; methionine; start; methionine
(NJCTL) This is called a universal code because … uses the same genetic code. This tells us that this code goes back …, in the first cell or even before that. If there were alternative codes that could work, they would have appeared in nature. There are very minor alterations, but they are rare and insignificant in their effect
all life; billions of years
(NJCTL) The processes of replication, transcription, and translation are so critical that they are called the … of biology
central dogma
(NJCTL) a dogma is a …, an …, a …
it is central because it is what … is based on
postulate; idea; philosophy; life
(NJCTL) The central dogma is a one way process. Changes in DNA affect … and …, but changes in proteins or mRNA do not affect the …
mRNA; protein; DNA
(NJCTL) Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme
RNA polymerase
(NJCTL) Transcription of genes is regulated by the … Genes are turned on and off in response to …
cell; environmental signals
(NJCTL) The control region is where … bind to the gene. When all the necessary factors are combined, RNA polymerase can bind to the gene and initiate …
transcription factors; transcription
(NJCTL) transcription is initiated when RNA polymerase and cofactors bind to the … (a section of the control region). The RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA creating an …, a space that grants RNA polymerase access to a … of the DNA molecule
promoter; initiation bubble; single strand
(NJCTL) The RNA polymerase never attaches to the strand that actually … the … The strand with the genes is called the “…” strand. This is not the strand that is …
contains; gene; non-template strand; transcribed
(NJCTL) The other strand is the … image of the non-template strand, and it carries the … image of the gene, not the gene itself. It is called the “…” This is the strand where the … attaches
mirror; mirror; template; RNA polymerase
(NJCTL) the template strand is used because RNA will be the … of the DNA it is transcribed from. And the non-coding strand is the mirror image of the gene. As such, the non-template strand of DNA (the gene) matches the new ..
mirror image; RNA strand
(NJCTL) To make the RNA strand, RNA polymerase runs down the DNA template strand … the … and bringing in the new RNA … with the proper complementary bases. As the RNA polymerase runs down the DNA, it … it
reading; bases; nucleotides; unwinds
(NJCTL) transcription is made possible by the fact that the different bases are attracted to one another in pairs based on the number of … they can make
hydrogen bonds
(NJCTL) Just like in DNA replication, RNA is made from the … end to the … end
5’; 3’
(NJCTL) RNA polymerase gets to a sequence on the DNA called a … This sequence signals the RNA polymerase to stop transcription. The RNA polymerase then … the DNA. The new RNA strand .. from the DNA, and the DNA recoils into a …
termination sequence; falls off; separates; helix
(NJCTL) individual cells respond to environmental change by … their …
regulating; gene expression
(NJCTL) one of the properties of life is “… to the …” which relates to regulating gene expression
response; environment
(NJCTL) two examples of gene expression regulation in prokaryotes are: … and …
lac operon; trp operon
(NJCTL) summary of gene expression regulation in eukaryotes:
the gene must be unpacked from …, the right … must be present
…. occurs
… and … must be added to the mRNA
pre-mRNA must be …
…. allow passage to the cytoplasm
mRNA comes into contact with a …. and … occurs
protein is used within the cell or exported to the environment
chromatin; transcription factors; transcription; cap; tail; spliced; nuclear pores; ribosome; translation
(NJCTL) translation is the process by which … strands are read to build …
RNA; proteins
(NJCTL) Translation requires 3 types of RNA that are created using transcription:
mRNA or … RNA, … the … for protein synthesis. This type of RNA is key to The Central DOgma
rRNA or … RNA, is a … for protein synthesis
tRNA or … helps in the assembly of .. during protein synthesis
messenger; carries; information; ribosomal; catalyst; transfer; amino acids
(NJCTL) the specific rna that contains the protein’s information form DNA is called …: it carries the genetic message to …, where it is translated
messenger RNA; ribosomes
(NJCTL) ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and some additional proteins make up the …, which includes two subunits, one … and one …
ribosome; small; large
(NJCTL) During translation, the ribosome catalyzes the reaction that makes … between …, thus building the …
covalent bonds; amino acids; protein
(NJCTL) transfer RNA carries .. to the ribosomes so that the ribosome can covalently bond them together to form the protein. RNA, being single stranded, can … on itself. In tRNA the RNA folds into a .. shape`
amino acids; fold in; t
(NJCTL) on tRNA, there is an amino acid … site, where the amino acid will attach
there is a …., a 3-base sequence on the tip that is complementary to the … on the mRNA
attachment; anticodon loop; codon
(NJCTL) the pieces necessary to begin transcription are: a coded strand of ... a set of ... ... ... to match all the amino acids
mRNA; 20 amino acids; ribosomes; tRNA
(NJCTL) tRNAs bond to the amino acid specified by their … The opposite side of each tRNA, the …, bonds to the matching codon on the mRNA creating a string of … in the proper sequence. The ribosome makes .. between the amino acids. The result is a … with the specified sequence of amino acids
anti-codon; anti-codon; amino acids; covalent bonds; protein chain
(NJCTL) the … and … of these amino acids allow all the proteins in the world to be created from only 20 amino acids.
length; sequence
(NJCTL) The small subunit of the ribosome attachs to the mRNA at the … of the … (the … end)
Then the large subunit of the ribosome comes in over the top.
The result is that the mRNA is sandwiched between the … at the … (and the … as well)
bottom; start codon; 5’; mRNA: start codon; second codon
(NJCTL) the ribosome goes to the 5’ end of the mRNA because the 5’ end is the beginning of where the gene on the … was … into …
DNA: transcribed; mRNA
(NJCTL) there are 2 sites within the ribosome:
the …-site: where the new protein will emerge
the ..-site: where the … are delivered in
P; A; amino acids
(NJCTL) the tRNAs, hydrogen bonded to their specific amino acids, surround the ribosome. As the leading edge of the mRNA, with the starting code …, is exposed in the A site, the tRNA with the code … enters the site and hydrogen bonds with it, carrying … into the ribosome
AUG: UAC; methionine
(NJCTL) the methionine is removed from the tRNA and stays in the ribosome to be bonded with the next amino acid. the tRNA leaves the ribosome so another tRNA can enter. Each tRNA will carry the appropriate amino acid into the ribosome to be bonded in the proper sequence, since each tRNA anticoding site matches the … site on the mRNA, which is located at the … site of the ribosome. Because each tRNA has an anticoding sequence it complimentary base pairs with the codon on the mRNA
coding site; A
(NJCTL) the 2nd tRNA with its amino acid is delivered into the A-site in the ribosome. The ribosome catalyzes a covalent bond between the … The ribosome moves the mRNA using … and the tRNA that was in the A-site moves to the ..-site and the tRNA that was in that site separates from its …
amino acids; chemical energy; P; amino acid
(NJCTL) … continues by adding one amino acid after another. each amino acid is delivered to the a-site by its matching tRNA. the ribosome makes a peptide bond between the 2 amino acids in the … and …
elongation; P; A sites
(NJCTL) the ribosome continues until it reaches a … which do not code for amino acids, but signal the end of … The protein is … and the 2 … separate from each other
stop codon; translation; complete; subunits
(NJCTL) the result of translation is a protein in its … sequence
primary
(NJCTL) the polymerase used in PCR is typically …
taq polymerase
(NJCTL) no editing for … occurs in prokaryotes
transcription
(NJCTL) chromatin packaging is
pre-transcriptional
(NJCTL) E site on the ribosome is the .. site for … tRNA molecules
exit; empty
gene therapy is done by way of …, but this is a limited prospect –> … is injected into eukaryotes with hopes that it will infect …
viruses; viruses; human cells
(RNAi) dicer: enzyme that acts like a …, cuts … sequences
restriction enzyme; palindromic
(RNAi) dicer chops up mRNA segments that have palindromic sequences in them, and then … the transcript for …
mRNA; destruction
(RNAi) alternative splicing is used in …
antibody production
(RNAi) macular degeneration –> macula is spot in eye where many … are, this illness blocks …, causing patients to be unable to distinguish … and … vision is complicated
cones; sight; lines; color
(RNAi) for macular degeneration, blood vessels that have started to … are the … factor
divide; blocking
(RNAi) to stop macular degeneration, … is looked at as a possible solution
RNAi
(RNAi) RNAi may be effective with … disease (dominant disease that doesn’t show itself right away), … disease, …, …, …, …
Huntington’s; Lou Gehrig’s; hepatitis; breast cancer; HIV; arthritis
(RNAi) RNAi can help us determine what
each gene does
(RNAi) RISC is the enzyme that recognizes the segments of RNA cut by …, and uses it as a template to find other RNA segments that have the same … as those. THis is achieved as the enzyme binds to … fragments, and uses one strand of it to bind to the other single-stranded RNAs that have a … sequence. It then destroys these pieces of single-stranded RNA
dicer; sequence; small interfering RNA; complementary
(RNAi) Researchers believe that RNAi may be used by the cell to suppress movements of “…” which include …, which can create/reverse mutations, as well as … sequences. Also, RNAi can be used in adjusting cellular …
mobile genetic elements; transposons; repetitive sequences; gene expression
(RNAi) … are used as a vector to deliver siRNAs, or short hairpin RNAs. These can result in a longer duration of gene ..,
viruses; silencing
(RNAi) use of antisense tech can block … of mRNA, and may also .. mRNA. Researchers also don’t know how to … the antisense tech to the appropriate cells,a and avoid their … before that delivery occurs. The same issue of delivery exists in gene therapy through viruses
translation; degrade; deliver; degradation
(RNAi) RNAi would be most effective in treating diseases that have a … basis, meaning that they do not involve many …
simple genetic; genes
(RNAi) After RNA is transcribed, its bases may bond with one another, forming … RNA that comprises … Dicer can cut these loops to form … RNA, which regulates gene expression
double-stranded; hairpin loops; small
(RNAi) sRNAs can influence how DNA is …, to inhibit certain segments from being transcribed. it may also be altered to produce microRNAs
compacted
(RNAi) miRNAs can bind to and reduce the stability of mRNA. They are also used in the production of …, which is necessary in RNAi
siRNAs
(transcription) the process in which … is synthesized from DNA. Before transcription begins, … occurs in which DNA is … by …. when this enzyme binds to the … region–the location on the gene that is the … point for transcription
RNA; initiation; unwound; RNA polymerase; promoter; starting
(transcription) When RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region and begins unwinding, an …, or …, … is formed
initiation, or transcription, bubble
(transcription) RNA nucleotides are then paired with … on the strand … the gene, called the … strand, as RNA polymerase does not bind to the strand that …, called the … strand
DNA nucleotides; opposite; template (antisense); contains the gene; gene (non-template, sense)
(transcription) the template strand is used for RNA synthesis because RNA polymerase will be generating the … of this strand, which would then directly … the sense strand
mirror image; match
(transcription) RNA polymerase synthesizes a strand of RNA in the … to … direction, adding the new nucleotides to the … ends of the molecule
5’; 3’; 3’
(transcription) RNA polymerase travels the length of the antisense strand, … the DNA and adding the proper RNA nucleotides, a process known as …
unwinding; elongation
(transcription) transcription ends with …, in which RNA polymerase reaches a … that causes RNA to … from the DNA. The newly synthesized strand of RNA then separates from the DNA, which conforms to its original double helix structure
termination; termination sequence; unbind
(translation) translation is the process in which RNA is converted into … It involves the reading of …, … letter segments of … that code for specific amino acids, by …
proteins; codons; 3; mRNA; ribosomes
(translation) translation is initiated when the … subunit of the ribosome attaches to the … of an mRNA molecule
small; start codon
(translation) An … pairs with the start coding, binding to the … site of the ribosome by way of its …, a 3-base long segment that is complementary and antiparallel to the …
initiator tRNA; peptide; anticodon; start codon
(translation) the initiator tRNA brings …, an amino acid, into the ribosome (codon is … and anticodon is …)
methionine; AUG; UAC
(translation) the methionine will be removed from the tRNA and will act as the first … in the …
amino acid; protein
(translation) the … subunit then joins the small subunit, and … follows, as tRNAs arrive and bind to the … site, bringing the … to the ribosome
large; elongation; amino; amino acids
(translation) … create the peptide bonds between the amino acids. tRNAs exit from the riboosme by way of the .. site as additional amino acids are added. Eventually, the ribosome will reach a …, which does not … for an … and translation terminates
ribozymes; exit; stop codon; code; amino acid
(translation) in prokaryotes, … and … occur simultaneously, which doesn’t happen in eukaryotes
transcription; translation
(translation) prokaryotes have only … type(s) of RNA polymerase, which synthesize(s) the three types of RNA. However, eukaryotes have an RNA polymerase for each type of RNA. RNA polymerase I synthesizes …, RNA polymerase II synthesizes …, and RNA polymerase III synthesizes …
one; rRNA; mRNA: tRNA
(transcription) prokaryotic initiation does not necessitate …, which are used in eukaryotic initiation, and allow RNA polymerase to bind to the promoter
transcription factors
prokaryotes do not have RNA …, …, or … and do not undergo …
capping; poly A tails; introns; splicing
transcription occurs in the …. for prokaryotes, and in the … for eukaryotes
cytoplasm; nucleus
translation is a … process in prokaryotes, but not in eukaryotes
continuous
translation is … in prokaryotes than in eukaryotes and requires … initiation factors, whereas eukaryotes need … initation factors
faster; 3; 9
the mRNA produced in prokaryotes is … and has a … duration, but in eukaryotes it is … and lasts for a … period of time
unstable; short; stable; longer
when mRNA is first formed, it is called … the ends of this undergo modification. At the 5’ end, a …, which is a modified …, is added to help indicate where a … should … when translation begins
pre-mRNA: nucleotide cap; guanine; ribosome; attach
a poly-A tail is added to the … end. This allows the mRNA to … the … and helps … ribosomes to the mRNA when translation starts
3’; exit; nucleus; load
the length of the poly-A tail contributes to the mRNA’s … in the … by preventing … from degrading it
survival; cytoplasm; hydrolytic enzymes
to form the final mRNA, segments of mRNA that do not code, known as …, are spliced out. …, regions that will be expressed, are spliced together. in some eukaryotes, introns splice out of the pre-mRNA by themselves, others use …, which identify the introns and use a … to splice them out
introns; exons; small nuclear RNAs; ribozyme
TATA box is … to promoter and is a segment of repeating … and … that helps to … RNA polymerase
upstream; Ts; As; position
CAAT & TATA are sequences that help the RNA polymerase to
bind
eukaryotes have … and …, but prokaryotes only have … –> prokaryotes execute gene regulation via transcription using operons
enhancers; repressors
Amino acid segment from tRNA is on … subunit, and anticodon segment is on … subunit
large; small
(RNAi) palindromic suggests that there is … –> mirror image
complementary base pairing
(RNAi) siRNA with RISc complex …/… to the transcripts that need to be destroyed –> … of …
this is kind of like antibodies marking antigen, miRNAs … other transcripts that look like the initial, such that … would destroy them
complement; bind; amplification; destruction; tag; dicer
(NJCTL) human karyotype is produced using a …., and is a picture of chromosomes during … in which they … in the middle of the cell
microscope; metaphase; line up
