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AP Bio > Extra Notes for Unit 4 (Class & txtbk) > Flashcards

Extra Notes for Unit 4 (Class & txtbk) Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

innate immune defense response: inflammatory response

occurs when … are damaged by pathogens

A

tissues

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2
Q

4 common signs of inflammatory response: .., .., …, and … –> due to .. changes in the damaged area

A

redness; heat; swelling; pain; capillary

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3
Q

histamine is secreted by … cells, leads to … and increased … of capillaries
increased blood flow to the area leads to … and … of skin
increased permeability allows … and .. to escape into .., which leads to …

A

mast; dilation; permeability; reddening; warming; proteins; fluids; tissues; swelling

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4
Q

some of these chemical mediators released by damaged cells stimulate

A

free nerve endings

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5
Q

inflammation causes white blood cells to move from … into …

A

bloodstream; damaged tissues

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6
Q

lysozyme can break down …

inflammatory response is …

A

viruses; nonspecific

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7
Q

antigens and chemokines are chemical messages for

A

lymphocytes

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8
Q

if platelets are not involved in inflammatory response, … occurs

A

sepsis

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9
Q

(acquired response) lymphocytes have to “learn” the antigen

humoral response –> located in body’s … (… of the body)

A

humors; fluids

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10
Q

(acquired response) … are used during the humoral response –> producing …,

A

B lymphocytes; antibodies

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11
Q

(acquired response) 2 types of antibodies:
… cells: …, actively seeking …
… cells: …, used for future …

A

plasma; activated; antigen; Memory B; deactivated; immune response

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12
Q

(acquired response) clonal selection: suggests that not all B cells should be activated in case of every illness. B cells are selected for, and once they are selected, they make … of themselves through …

A

clones; division

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13
Q

(acquired response) antigen display: leads to … (…) and … responses

A

MHC; major histocompatibility complexes; class I; class II

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14
Q

(acquired response) all cells have MHC class … and can therefore perform …

A

I; antigen display

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15
Q

(acquired response) antigen presenting cells, like … and … are specialized, they go to cells to … and then communicate with … –> these are MHC class ..

A

macrophages; dendritic cells; expose antigens; lymphocytes; II

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16
Q

(restriction enzymes)
blunt ends: … bonds cut
sticky ends: … and … bonds –> cut … sequences, viruses are … so this mechanism is more helpful

A

phosphodiester; phosphodiester; hydrogen; palindromic; palindromic

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17
Q

(restriction enzymes) plasmids are used in genetic engineering because they’re always … –> these confer …

A

expressed; antibiotic resistance

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18
Q

(restriction enzymes) human protein product (…) produced by bacteria via –> cut out gene and insert it into the .. such that the bacteria would produce …

A

insulin; plasmid; insulin

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19
Q

(restriction enzymes) antibiotic resistant pieces of genome act as “map,” marking locations on the … to determine placement of …

A

circular DNA; gene of interest

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20
Q

(restriction enzymes) in past, … (… insulin) given to diabetics, had minimal effects. … of this insulin occurred

A

cow insulin; bovine; rejection

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21
Q

smooth ER: … in muscle cells –> stores …

A

sarcoplasm; calcium ions

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22
Q

..: basic unit of muscle cell that does ..

A

sarcomere; contraction

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23
Q

… is broken down before … to get calcium when needed
Recurrent pregnancy leads to risk of …, because calcium stores are depleted
… and …

A

bone; muscle; osteoporosis; acetylation; methylation

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24
Q

the enzyme … is used to bind DNA cut by restriction enzymes to form …

A

ligase; sticky ends

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25
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) Step 1: make … gel, add … and … and then … the mixture

A

agarose; agarose; buffer; microwave

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26
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) agarose is a polysaccharide made of

A

galactose

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27
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) the mixture is microwaved to make it a … such that it can be ../…
it is then …

A

liquid; casted; molded; cooled

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28
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) step 3, after cooling: add … which … under …, binding to …

A

DNA indicator; fluoresces; UV light; DNA

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29
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) step 4: pour gel into tank to mold it to … and …

A

size; shape

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30
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) step 5: place … to create …/…, let it set for 30 minutes, these .. are where the … is loaded

A

comb; lanes/ wells; wells; digest

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31
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) gel is placed in … and surrounded with … to keep … consistent

A

chamber; buffer; pH

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32
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) fragments travel through ….

A

agarose pores

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33
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) PCR: polymerase chain reaction, … DNA to create … for multiple tests

A

replicates; samples

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34
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) loading dye: marks …, visualize and assess … of fragments

A

end points; speed

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35
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) if current is left on, DNA will … gel –> won’t show …

A

run off; banding patterns

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36
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) finally, expose the gel to … to show DNA bands

A

UV light

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37
Q

(gel electrophoresis process) DNA ladder: known … and …, used as … to estimate … of other fragments

A

length; base pairs; reference; size

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38
Q

memory B cells stored in

A

lymph nodes

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39
Q

passive immunity is a defense mechanism that one can be born with. antibodies from the mother can be transferred to the fetus via the …, but these do not last for the baby’s whole life, disappearing around … to … months of age

A

placenta; 6; 12

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40
Q

passive immunity can occur by way of …, in which an individual receives … from other people or organisms

A

injections; antibodies

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41
Q 
innate immunity is non-specific and includes: 
..
...
...
...
... response
... secretions
... produced by cells that are of slightly ... pH to harm foreign invaders
generalized ... activity
...
A

skin; symbiotic microbes; tears; stomach acid; inflammatory; sweat gland; oils; acidic; macrophage; fever

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42
Q

acquired immunity includes … and … cell s

A

memory B; memory T

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43
Q

passive immunity: … introducing …, small antibodies given via …., …, and …

A

birth; bacteria; placenta; retro vaccinology; breastfeeding

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44
Q

passive immunity: when antibodies are given via placenta, they are … and are only … of the 5 types of immunoglobulins

A

small; 2

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45
Q

passive immunity: in breastfeeding, … of the 5 immunoglobulins are passed

A

all

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46
Q

T lymphocytes mature in the … in the …

A

thymus gland; throat

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47
Q

types of T cells: …, …, and … T cells

A

helper; natural killer; memory

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48
Q

purpose of thymus: prevent cells that would cause … from spreading

A

autoimmune diseases

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49
Q

autoimmune diseases are illnesses in which the immune system recognizes “…” cells as … (e.g. Crohn’s, lupus, diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis)

A

self; invaders

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50
Q

B cells activated in … and …, bind to protein receptors, antigen specific

A

lymph node; spleen

51
Q

there are differentiation differences in B cells: … spliced out differently, and so are … as a result (… regions) This allows B cells to respond to … antigens

A

introns; exons; expressed; specific

52
Q

differentiation differences in B cells allows for there to be … of B lymphocytes

A

billions

53
Q

B cells produce antigens that are ..-shaped and attach to antibodies

A

y

54
Q

antibodies can mark cells for macrophages or they can make the antigen ../…, causing them to … together (…/…)

A

heavy; slow; clump; precipitation; agglutination

55
Q

lymph nodes are not glands, because glands secrete … and lymph nodes don’t do that

A

hormones

56
Q

histamine is not a hormone. It is a … that binds to receptors on …, causing a signal transduction pathway that leads to … due to altered gene expression

A

short-distance protein; capillaries; dilation

57
Q

dilation of capillaries means they will

A

separate

58
Q

leakiness of capillaries leads to … which causes … due to pressure on nerve endings, and redness (redness and warmth comes from …)

A

swelling; pains; activated macrophages

59
Q

when macrophages do their work, … clot blood, creating … of bacteria to keep them in one spot and prevent spreading

A

platelets; quarantine

60
Q

MHCs are … on cell surfaces that assist the immune system in recognizing pathogens

A

glycoproteins

61
Q

MHCs bind to … from pathogens and display them on the cell surfaces, activating macrophages

A

protein fragments

62
Q

MHC class I allows for antigen display on all … cells (… cells aren’t …), aiding … T cells to recognize and respond to the antigen

A

nucleated; red blood cells; nucleated; cytotoxic

63
Q

(MHC class I) The protein receptor … is present on cytotoxic T cells, allowing for it to bind to the MHC class … complex on the target cell. When this binding occurs, the cytotoxic T cells are activated and release …, which forms … on the target cell’s plasma membrane

A

CD8; I; perforin; pores

64
Q

(MHC Class I) when perforin is used, enzymes called … enter the target cell, inducing …

A

granzymes; apoptosis

65
Q

(MHC Class II) MHC class II are more specialized molecules, present in … cells such as … cells

A

antigen-presenting immune cells; dendritic

66
Q

(MHC Class II) MHC class II molecules aid … T cells in recognizing and responding to the antigen presented by the antigen-presenting cells

A

helper

67
Q

(MHC Class II) The surface protein, …, is present on helper T cells and enables them to bind to MHC Class II molecules, activating the T cells and causing them to …, meaning that they … and produce … of themselves

A

CD4; proliferate; divide; clones

68
Q

(MHC Class II) Activated T cells can bring about either the … or … response by …

A

humoral; cell-mediated; secreting cytokines

69
Q

Some helper T cells can become …

A

memory T cells

70
Q

MHCs are

A

antigen specific

71
Q

MHCs can lead to

A

organ rejection

72
Q

(Ch. 33) when receptors bind to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS), they trigger an immune reaction. PAMPS include … of viruses, certain arrangements of …, …., or … found only on …

A

double-stranded RNA; carbs; lipids; proteins; bacterial cell walls

73
Q

(Ch. 33) innate immunity: recognizes common microbial invaders very …, but shows no signs of an .. response upon repeated exposure

A

quickly increased

74
Q

(Ch. 33) the evolution of adaptive immunity likely involved insertion of a small piece of … into a gene coding for a more primitive, less variable …

A

DNA; antigen receptor

75
Q

(Ch. 33) generation of antigen receptors by … allows adaptive immune system to respond to new antigens that evolve

A

gene rearrangement

76
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system includes … and …

A

lymphatic vessels; lymphoid organs

77
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system has 3 functions to maintain homeostasis:

  • … absorb excess … and return it to the bloodstream
  • in the small intestine, capillaries called … absorb … in the form of … and transport them to the bloodstream
  • lymphoid organs and vessels are sites of production and distribution of …, which help defend the body against …
A

capillaries; tissue fluid; lacteals; fats; lipoproteins; lymphocytes

78
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:

right lymphatic duct- empties lymph into …, which transports blood away from the … and the … toward the …

A

right subclavian vein; right arm; right ventral chest wall; heart

79
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components: axillary lymph nodes- located in the … region

A

underarm

80
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:
thoracic duct- empties lymph into the …
inguinal lymph nodes: located in … region

A

left subclavian vein; groin

81
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:

tonsils- aggregates of … tissue that respond to … in the …

A

lymphoid; pathogens; pharynx

82
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:

left subclavian vein- transports blood away from the … and the … toward the …

A

left arm; left ventral chest wall; heart

83
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:

red bone marrow: site for the origin of all types of

A

blood cells

84
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:

thymus: lymphoid organ where

A

T cells mature

85
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:

spleen: resident … and … cells respond to the presence of … in …

A

T; B; antigen; blood

86
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic vessels form a 1 way system that begins with …, which are tiny, closed-ended … which take up excess …

A

lymphatic capillaries; vessels; tissue fluid

87
Q

(Ch. 33) fluid inside lymphatic capillaries is called

A

lymph

88
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphatic capillaries form .. before entering either the .. or the …

A

lymphatic vessels; thoracic duct; right lymphatic duct

89
Q

(Ch. 33) skeletal muscle contraction forces lymph through lymphatic vessels and one-way … prevent …

A

valves; backflow

90
Q

(Ch. 33) edema: localized accumulation of

A

tissue fluid

91
Q

(Ch. 33) lymphocytes develop and mature in primary lymphoid organs: … and …

A

bone marrow; thymus

92
Q

(Ch. 33) secondary lymphoid organs are where some lymphocytes are … by antigens

A

activated

93
Q

(Ch. 33) red bone marrow: major primary lymphoid organ, spongy, semisolid red tissue where stem cells divide and produce all types of ..

A

blood cells

94
Q

(Ch. 33) two main types of lymphocytes:
B cells- remain in … until they mature
T cells- immature T cells migrate from … via the bloodstream to the … where they mature

A

bone marrow; bone marrow; thymus

95
Q

(Ch. 33) thymus: primary lymphoid organ in thoracic cavity; here, T cells learn to recognize the combinations of … and … molecules, which characterizes mature T cells

A

self; foreign;

96
Q

(Ch. 33) mature lymphocytes move into the bloodstream and migrate into … organs, where they may encounter foreign molecules/cells and become …, thus reentering the …, searching for signs of infection/inflammation

A

secondary lymphoid; activated; bloodstream

97
Q

(Ch. 33) lymph nodes: secondary lymphoid organ; phagocytic cells engulf … and … in lymph nodes, and then “present” these to T cells

A

foreign debris; pathogens`

98
Q

(Ch. 33) spleen: secondary lymphoid organ; contains red pulp that … and … blood, and consists of … and …, where macrophages remove … and … blood cells

A

filters; cleans; blood vessels; sinuses; old; defective

99
Q

(Ch. 33) liver responds to inflammatory mediators by increasing production of …, which can … microbial invaders, making them easier for phagocytes to …

A

acute phase proteins; coat; engulf

100
Q

inflammatory chemicals may act on the brain to lead to …, potentially to … bacteria

A

fevers; kill off

101
Q

antigens, chemical mediators, dendritic cells, and macrophages move from damaged tissue via … to lymph nodes, where phagocytes interact with T cells and B cells to activate a specific immune response

A

lymph

102
Q

macrophages and dendritic cells: engulf pathogens, which are digested and broken down into smaller molecular components; they travel into …, stimulating T cells to induce an …

A

lymph nodes; adaptive immune response

103
Q

Natural killer cells: kill … and … cells by way of …; these seek out cells that do not have .. and then kill these cells my inducing …; their numbers do not increase after stimulation because they are …

A

virus-infected; cancerous; cell-to-cell contact; apoptosis; non-specific

104
Q

the antigen receptor on a b cell is called a

A

b-cell receptor

105
Q

b cells are activated in …/…, after their receptors bind to an antigen. the b cell then divides by mitosis, and makes clones of itself

A

lymph node/spleen

106
Q

clonal selection theory: the antigen receptor of each B/T cell binds to only … type of antigen –> the antigen selects the B cells that begin dividing, … secreted by helper T cells stimulate B cell differentiation. Many of these become plasma cells which produce … Others become … cells, which “remember” an antigen and make us immune to specific illnesses

A

one; cytokines; antibodies; memory B

107
Q

plasma cells are larger than regular B cells because they have a large … for mass production of …

A

rough ER; antibodies

108
Q

(structure of antibodies) basic unit is … -shaped protein with two arms. Each is made of a long and short polypeptide chain, which have … regions, located at the … of the Y, where the … sequence is set

A

Y; constant; trunk; amino acid

109
Q

(structure of antibodies) … regions at the tips of the Y are the antigen-binding sites, and their shape is specific to a particular antigen

A

variable

110
Q

(structure of antibodies) binding of antibodies and antigens can produce a clump of … and … called an …

A

antigens; antibodies; immune complex

111
Q

(structure of antibodies) antibodies in the immune complex attract

A

white blood cells

112
Q

(structure of antibodies) antibodies can “neutralize” toxins/viruses by preventing them from … to receptors on cells

A

binding

113
Q

different classes of antibodies:
… - single …-shaped molecule
…- can cross placenta from mother to fetus to provide temporary protection
…- secreted in …, …, …, and at … membranes
…- pentamers- clusters of 5 ..-shaped molecules linked together, these are the first ones produced during most ..-cell responses
…- found bound to receptors on eosinophils and mast cells

A

IgC; Y; IgG; IgA; milk; tears; saliva; mucous; IgM; B; IgE;

114
Q

T-cell receptor: unable to recognize antigen without help of an … on the cell surface

A

MHC protein

115
Q

cytokines can cause cytotoxic t cells to .., while others activate … to seek, engulf, and destroy pathogens. Others influence … activities

A

proliferate; macrophages; B-cell

116
Q

cytotoxic t cells contain … filled with … as well as …

A

storage vacuoles; perforin; granzymes

117
Q

cytotoxic T cells are .. cells, but some become … cells

A

short-lived; memory T cells

118
Q

active immunity: when an individual produces … immune response against an antigen, can be induced artificially by way of …., …

A

their own; immunizations; vaccines

119
Q

(signal peptides) signal sequence is about … in length

A

20 amino acids

120
Q

(signal peptides) signal sequence from ER combines with a … (…), reducing the rate of …/halting …, allowing the ribosome to attach to the ER by means of a … in the ER membrane

A

signal recognition particle; SRP; translocation; protein synthesis; special SRP receptor

121
Q

(signal peptides) the ribosome attaches to a …, and the … is removed and … resumes

A

ribosome receptor; SRP; translocation

122
Q

(signal peptides) after translation is complete, the signal sequence is … of the protein by a specific signal …, an enzyme present in the ER lumen

A

cleaved off; peptidase

123
Q

(signal peptides) the newly synthesized protein is now free in the

A

lumen of the ER

124
Q

(signal peptides) signal peptide tells ribosomes to move to … … halts translation until it gets there. Once the ribosome gets to the ER, … is continued and the resulting … is stuffed into the ER for further modification

A

ER; SRP; protein synthesis; polypeptide

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