Extra Notes for Unit 4 (Class & txtbk) Flashcards
innate immune defense response: inflammatory response
occurs when … are damaged by pathogens
tissues
4 common signs of inflammatory response: .., .., …, and … –> due to .. changes in the damaged area
redness; heat; swelling; pain; capillary
histamine is secreted by … cells, leads to … and increased … of capillaries
increased blood flow to the area leads to … and … of skin
increased permeability allows … and .. to escape into .., which leads to …
mast; dilation; permeability; reddening; warming; proteins; fluids; tissues; swelling
some of these chemical mediators released by damaged cells stimulate
free nerve endings
inflammation causes white blood cells to move from … into …
bloodstream; damaged tissues
lysozyme can break down …
inflammatory response is …
viruses; nonspecific
antigens and chemokines are chemical messages for
lymphocytes
if platelets are not involved in inflammatory response, … occurs
sepsis
(acquired response) lymphocytes have to “learn” the antigen
humoral response –> located in body’s … (… of the body)
humors; fluids
(acquired response) … are used during the humoral response –> producing …,
B lymphocytes; antibodies
(acquired response) 2 types of antibodies:
… cells: …, actively seeking …
… cells: …, used for future …
plasma; activated; antigen; Memory B; deactivated; immune response
(acquired response) clonal selection: suggests that not all B cells should be activated in case of every illness. B cells are selected for, and once they are selected, they make … of themselves through …
clones; division
(acquired response) antigen display: leads to … (…) and … responses
MHC; major histocompatibility complexes; class I; class II
(acquired response) all cells have MHC class … and can therefore perform …
I; antigen display
(acquired response) antigen presenting cells, like … and … are specialized, they go to cells to … and then communicate with … –> these are MHC class ..
macrophages; dendritic cells; expose antigens; lymphocytes; II
(restriction enzymes)
blunt ends: … bonds cut
sticky ends: … and … bonds –> cut … sequences, viruses are … so this mechanism is more helpful
phosphodiester; phosphodiester; hydrogen; palindromic; palindromic
(restriction enzymes) plasmids are used in genetic engineering because they’re always … –> these confer …
expressed; antibiotic resistance
(restriction enzymes) human protein product (…) produced by bacteria via –> cut out gene and insert it into the .. such that the bacteria would produce …
insulin; plasmid; insulin
(restriction enzymes) antibiotic resistant pieces of genome act as “map,” marking locations on the … to determine placement of …
circular DNA; gene of interest
(restriction enzymes) in past, … (… insulin) given to diabetics, had minimal effects. … of this insulin occurred
cow insulin; bovine; rejection
smooth ER: … in muscle cells –> stores …
sarcoplasm; calcium ions
..: basic unit of muscle cell that does ..
sarcomere; contraction
… is broken down before … to get calcium when needed
Recurrent pregnancy leads to risk of …, because calcium stores are depleted
… and …
bone; muscle; osteoporosis; acetylation; methylation
the enzyme … is used to bind DNA cut by restriction enzymes to form …
ligase; sticky ends
(gel electrophoresis process) Step 1: make … gel, add … and … and then … the mixture
agarose; agarose; buffer; microwave
(gel electrophoresis process) agarose is a polysaccharide made of
galactose
(gel electrophoresis process) the mixture is microwaved to make it a … such that it can be ../…
it is then …
liquid; casted; molded; cooled
(gel electrophoresis process) step 3, after cooling: add … which … under …, binding to …
DNA indicator; fluoresces; UV light; DNA
(gel electrophoresis process) step 4: pour gel into tank to mold it to … and …
size; shape
(gel electrophoresis process) step 5: place … to create …/…, let it set for 30 minutes, these .. are where the … is loaded
comb; lanes/ wells; wells; digest
(gel electrophoresis process) gel is placed in … and surrounded with … to keep … consistent
chamber; buffer; pH
(gel electrophoresis process) fragments travel through ….
agarose pores
(gel electrophoresis process) PCR: polymerase chain reaction, … DNA to create … for multiple tests
replicates; samples
(gel electrophoresis process) loading dye: marks …, visualize and assess … of fragments
end points; speed
(gel electrophoresis process) if current is left on, DNA will … gel –> won’t show …
run off; banding patterns
(gel electrophoresis process) finally, expose the gel to … to show DNA bands
UV light
(gel electrophoresis process) DNA ladder: known … and …, used as … to estimate … of other fragments
length; base pairs; reference; size
memory B cells stored in
lymph nodes
passive immunity is a defense mechanism that one can be born with. antibodies from the mother can be transferred to the fetus via the …, but these do not last for the baby’s whole life, disappearing around … to … months of age
placenta; 6; 12
passive immunity can occur by way of …, in which an individual receives … from other people or organisms
injections; antibodies
innate immunity is non-specific and includes: .. ... ... ... ... response ... secretions ... produced by cells that are of slightly ... pH to harm foreign invaders generalized ... activity ...
skin; symbiotic microbes; tears; stomach acid; inflammatory; sweat gland; oils; acidic; macrophage; fever
acquired immunity includes … and … cell s
memory B; memory T
passive immunity: … introducing …, small antibodies given via …., …, and …
birth; bacteria; placenta; retro vaccinology; breastfeeding
passive immunity: when antibodies are given via placenta, they are … and are only … of the 5 types of immunoglobulins
small; 2
passive immunity: in breastfeeding, … of the 5 immunoglobulins are passed
all
T lymphocytes mature in the … in the …
thymus gland; throat
types of T cells: …, …, and … T cells
helper; natural killer; memory
purpose of thymus: prevent cells that would cause … from spreading
autoimmune diseases
autoimmune diseases are illnesses in which the immune system recognizes “…” cells as … (e.g. Crohn’s, lupus, diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis)
self; invaders
B cells activated in … and …, bind to protein receptors, antigen specific
lymph node; spleen
there are differentiation differences in B cells: … spliced out differently, and so are … as a result (… regions) This allows B cells to respond to … antigens
introns; exons; expressed; specific
differentiation differences in B cells allows for there to be … of B lymphocytes
billions
B cells produce antigens that are ..-shaped and attach to antibodies
y
antibodies can mark cells for macrophages or they can make the antigen ../…, causing them to … together (…/…)
heavy; slow; clump; precipitation; agglutination
lymph nodes are not glands, because glands secrete … and lymph nodes don’t do that
hormones
histamine is not a hormone. It is a … that binds to receptors on …, causing a signal transduction pathway that leads to … due to altered gene expression
short-distance protein; capillaries; dilation
dilation of capillaries means they will
separate
leakiness of capillaries leads to … which causes … due to pressure on nerve endings, and redness (redness and warmth comes from …)
swelling; pains; activated macrophages
when macrophages do their work, … clot blood, creating … of bacteria to keep them in one spot and prevent spreading
platelets; quarantine
MHCs are … on cell surfaces that assist the immune system in recognizing pathogens
glycoproteins
MHCs bind to … from pathogens and display them on the cell surfaces, activating macrophages
protein fragments
MHC class I allows for antigen display on all … cells (… cells aren’t …), aiding … T cells to recognize and respond to the antigen
nucleated; red blood cells; nucleated; cytotoxic
(MHC class I) The protein receptor … is present on cytotoxic T cells, allowing for it to bind to the MHC class … complex on the target cell. When this binding occurs, the cytotoxic T cells are activated and release …, which forms … on the target cell’s plasma membrane
CD8; I; perforin; pores
(MHC Class I) when perforin is used, enzymes called … enter the target cell, inducing …
granzymes; apoptosis
(MHC Class II) MHC class II are more specialized molecules, present in … cells such as … cells
antigen-presenting immune cells; dendritic
(MHC Class II) MHC class II molecules aid … T cells in recognizing and responding to the antigen presented by the antigen-presenting cells
helper
(MHC Class II) The surface protein, …, is present on helper T cells and enables them to bind to MHC Class II molecules, activating the T cells and causing them to …, meaning that they … and produce … of themselves
CD4; proliferate; divide; clones
(MHC Class II) Activated T cells can bring about either the … or … response by …
humoral; cell-mediated; secreting cytokines
Some helper T cells can become …
memory T cells
MHCs are
antigen specific
MHCs can lead to
organ rejection
(Ch. 33) when receptors bind to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS), they trigger an immune reaction. PAMPS include … of viruses, certain arrangements of …, …., or … found only on …
double-stranded RNA; carbs; lipids; proteins; bacterial cell walls
(Ch. 33) innate immunity: recognizes common microbial invaders very …, but shows no signs of an .. response upon repeated exposure
quickly increased
(Ch. 33) the evolution of adaptive immunity likely involved insertion of a small piece of … into a gene coding for a more primitive, less variable …
DNA; antigen receptor
(Ch. 33) generation of antigen receptors by … allows adaptive immune system to respond to new antigens that evolve
gene rearrangement
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system includes … and …
lymphatic vessels; lymphoid organs
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system has 3 functions to maintain homeostasis:
- … absorb excess … and return it to the bloodstream
- in the small intestine, capillaries called … absorb … in the form of … and transport them to the bloodstream
- lymphoid organs and vessels are sites of production and distribution of …, which help defend the body against …
capillaries; tissue fluid; lacteals; fats; lipoproteins; lymphocytes
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:
right lymphatic duct- empties lymph into …, which transports blood away from the … and the … toward the …
right subclavian vein; right arm; right ventral chest wall; heart
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components: axillary lymph nodes- located in the … region
underarm
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:
thoracic duct- empties lymph into the …
inguinal lymph nodes: located in … region
left subclavian vein; groin
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:
tonsils- aggregates of … tissue that respond to … in the …
lymphoid; pathogens; pharynx
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:
left subclavian vein- transports blood away from the … and the … toward the …
left arm; left ventral chest wall; heart
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:
red bone marrow: site for the origin of all types of
blood cells
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:
thymus: lymphoid organ where
T cells mature
(Ch. 33) lymphatic system components:
spleen: resident … and … cells respond to the presence of … in …
T; B; antigen; blood
(Ch. 33) lymphatic vessels form a 1 way system that begins with …, which are tiny, closed-ended … which take up excess …
lymphatic capillaries; vessels; tissue fluid
(Ch. 33) fluid inside lymphatic capillaries is called
lymph
(Ch. 33) lymphatic capillaries form .. before entering either the .. or the …
lymphatic vessels; thoracic duct; right lymphatic duct
(Ch. 33) skeletal muscle contraction forces lymph through lymphatic vessels and one-way … prevent …
valves; backflow
(Ch. 33) edema: localized accumulation of
tissue fluid
(Ch. 33) lymphocytes develop and mature in primary lymphoid organs: … and …
bone marrow; thymus
(Ch. 33) secondary lymphoid organs are where some lymphocytes are … by antigens
activated
(Ch. 33) red bone marrow: major primary lymphoid organ, spongy, semisolid red tissue where stem cells divide and produce all types of ..
blood cells
(Ch. 33) two main types of lymphocytes:
B cells- remain in … until they mature
T cells- immature T cells migrate from … via the bloodstream to the … where they mature
bone marrow; bone marrow; thymus
(Ch. 33) thymus: primary lymphoid organ in thoracic cavity; here, T cells learn to recognize the combinations of … and … molecules, which characterizes mature T cells
self; foreign;
(Ch. 33) mature lymphocytes move into the bloodstream and migrate into … organs, where they may encounter foreign molecules/cells and become …, thus reentering the …, searching for signs of infection/inflammation
secondary lymphoid; activated; bloodstream
(Ch. 33) lymph nodes: secondary lymphoid organ; phagocytic cells engulf … and … in lymph nodes, and then “present” these to T cells
foreign debris; pathogens`
(Ch. 33) spleen: secondary lymphoid organ; contains red pulp that … and … blood, and consists of … and …, where macrophages remove … and … blood cells
filters; cleans; blood vessels; sinuses; old; defective
(Ch. 33) liver responds to inflammatory mediators by increasing production of …, which can … microbial invaders, making them easier for phagocytes to …
acute phase proteins; coat; engulf
inflammatory chemicals may act on the brain to lead to …, potentially to … bacteria
fevers; kill off
antigens, chemical mediators, dendritic cells, and macrophages move from damaged tissue via … to lymph nodes, where phagocytes interact with T cells and B cells to activate a specific immune response
lymph
macrophages and dendritic cells: engulf pathogens, which are digested and broken down into smaller molecular components; they travel into …, stimulating T cells to induce an …
lymph nodes; adaptive immune response
Natural killer cells: kill … and … cells by way of …; these seek out cells that do not have .. and then kill these cells my inducing …; their numbers do not increase after stimulation because they are …
virus-infected; cancerous; cell-to-cell contact; apoptosis; non-specific
the antigen receptor on a b cell is called a
b-cell receptor
b cells are activated in …/…, after their receptors bind to an antigen. the b cell then divides by mitosis, and makes clones of itself
lymph node/spleen
clonal selection theory: the antigen receptor of each B/T cell binds to only … type of antigen –> the antigen selects the B cells that begin dividing, … secreted by helper T cells stimulate B cell differentiation. Many of these become plasma cells which produce … Others become … cells, which “remember” an antigen and make us immune to specific illnesses
one; cytokines; antibodies; memory B
plasma cells are larger than regular B cells because they have a large … for mass production of …
rough ER; antibodies
(structure of antibodies) basic unit is … -shaped protein with two arms. Each is made of a long and short polypeptide chain, which have … regions, located at the … of the Y, where the … sequence is set
Y; constant; trunk; amino acid
(structure of antibodies) … regions at the tips of the Y are the antigen-binding sites, and their shape is specific to a particular antigen
variable
(structure of antibodies) binding of antibodies and antigens can produce a clump of … and … called an …
antigens; antibodies; immune complex
(structure of antibodies) antibodies in the immune complex attract
white blood cells
(structure of antibodies) antibodies can “neutralize” toxins/viruses by preventing them from … to receptors on cells
binding
different classes of antibodies:
… - single …-shaped molecule
…- can cross placenta from mother to fetus to provide temporary protection
…- secreted in …, …, …, and at … membranes
…- pentamers- clusters of 5 ..-shaped molecules linked together, these are the first ones produced during most ..-cell responses
…- found bound to receptors on eosinophils and mast cells
IgC; Y; IgG; IgA; milk; tears; saliva; mucous; IgM; B; IgE;
T-cell receptor: unable to recognize antigen without help of an … on the cell surface
MHC protein
cytokines can cause cytotoxic t cells to .., while others activate … to seek, engulf, and destroy pathogens. Others influence … activities
proliferate; macrophages; B-cell
cytotoxic t cells contain … filled with … as well as …
storage vacuoles; perforin; granzymes
cytotoxic T cells are .. cells, but some become … cells
short-lived; memory T cells
active immunity: when an individual produces … immune response against an antigen, can be induced artificially by way of …., …
their own; immunizations; vaccines
(signal peptides) signal sequence is about … in length
20 amino acids
(signal peptides) signal sequence from ER combines with a … (…), reducing the rate of …/halting …, allowing the ribosome to attach to the ER by means of a … in the ER membrane
signal recognition particle; SRP; translocation; protein synthesis; special SRP receptor
(signal peptides) the ribosome attaches to a …, and the … is removed and … resumes
ribosome receptor; SRP; translocation
(signal peptides) after translation is complete, the signal sequence is … of the protein by a specific signal …, an enzyme present in the ER lumen
cleaved off; peptidase
(signal peptides) the newly synthesized protein is now free in the
lumen of the ER
(signal peptides) signal peptide tells ribosomes to move to … … halts translation until it gets there. Once the ribosome gets to the ER, … is continued and the resulting … is stuffed into the ER for further modification
ER; SRP; protein synthesis; polypeptide
