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AP Bio > Rest of NJCTL and Class Notes for Membranes & Proteins Section > Flashcards

Rest of NJCTL and Class Notes for Membranes & Proteins Section Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

(cell signaling) cellular signaling is a part of a complex system of communication that governs basic … and coordinates …

A

cellular activities; cell actions

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2
Q

(cell signaling) the ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to their microenvironment is the basis of …, …, and ….

A

development; tissue repair; immunity

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3
Q

(cell signaling) cells within multicellular organisms must communicate with one another to coordinate all aspects of life. single-celled organisms also communicate with one another to perform certain … tasks

A

symbiotic

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4
Q

(cell signaling) correct and appropriate signaling pathways are generally under …. and show shared evolution among organisms with ….

A

strong selective pressure; shared pathways

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5
Q

(signal transduction) transcription factors are … regulating the initiation of ….. They cause a cell to respond to a … in the … in a very specific way

A

cofactors; gene transcription; signal; environment

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6
Q

(signal transduction) this signal is anything that the cell has the ability to respond to. It could be …, a …, a …, …, etc

A

light; chemical; hormone; heat;

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7
Q

(signal transduction) a signal transduction pathway proceeds with reception of a …, transduction of that signal through the cell to the …, and finally results in …. of a ….

A

signal; DNA; expression; transcription factor

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8
Q

(signal transduction) the pathway starts when a new … (aka …) reaches a cell

A

signal; ligand

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9
Q

(signal transduction) external signal activates membrane-bound protein known as a …. These are like … in that they will bind with only 1 kind of substrate (signal)

A

receptor; enzymes

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10
Q

(signal transduction) the activated receptor triggers a cascade reaction, a …

A

metabolic pathway

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11
Q

(signal transduction) the metabolic pathway produces a specific …. in response to the signal. The product initiates … of a …

A

transcription factor; transcription; response gene

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12
Q

(signal transduction) transcription factors initiate the … of additional genes, which coordinate the cell’s …

A

transcription; response to stimuli

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13
Q

(regulation) when a receptor receives an external signal from another cell, the response can either be to … or … the … of a specific … within the ell

A

increase; decrease; concentration; molecule

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14
Q

(regulation) increasing the concentration is called … and decreasing production of that molecule isi called …

A

upregulation; downregulation

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15
Q

(regulation) example of up/downregulation: if no glucose is present but lactose is , bacteria would … glucose receptors and … lactose receptors

A

downregulate; upregulate

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16
Q

(regulation) during upregulation, the number of … on the surface of target cells …, making the cells more sensitive to a hormone or another agent

A

receptors; increase

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17
Q

(regulation) example of upregulation: there is an increase in uterine …. in the third trimester of pregnancy, promoting the contraction of the smooth muscle of the uterus

A

oxytocin receptors

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18
Q

(regulation) downregulation is a … in the number of … on the surface of target cells, making the cells less sensitive to a hormone or another agent. some receptors can be rapidly downregulated.

A

decrease; receptors

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19
Q

(regulation) example of downregulation: in type II diabetes –> characterized by elevated levels of insulin in the bloodstream but a loss of …. this downregulation can sometimes be reversed through exercise, and occasionally, a change in diet can also resolve the issue

A

insulin receptors

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20
Q

(single-celled signaling) in single-celled organisms, signal transduction pathways influence how the cells respond to its environment. many single-celled organisms live in … with other organisms, responding to signals released by adjacent cells

A

symbiotic relationships

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21
Q

(single-celled signaling) certain bacteria use … to communicate to other nearby cells and regulate specific …. in response to …. this is known as …

A

chemical messengers; reproductive pathways; population density; quorum sensing

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22
Q

(single-celled signaling) pseudomonas aeruginosa use quorum sensing to coordinate cell … they grow within a host without harming it until they reach a certain … once that is reached, they release a signal to aggressively … in order to overcome the host’s …. the bacteria create a … wherein they form a layer that completely covers the host’s … and then reproduce at an exponential rate. research has shown that garlic inhibits the formation of these layers by blocking the quorum sensing pathway. This is called ….

A

aggregation; concentration; replicate; immune system; biofilm; tissue; quorum inhibition

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23
Q

(multicellular signaling) multicellular organisms have physical pathways between adjacent cells to aid in … and ….

A

communication; transfer of substances

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24
Q

(multicellular signaling) in animal cells these cell junctions are:
tight junctions: can bind cells together into …
adhering junctions: fasten cells together into …. They are somewhat …
communication (gap) junctions: allow substances to …. from cell to cell. they are totally …. they are the equivalent of … in plants

A

leakproof sheets; strong sheets; leakproof; flow; leaky; plasmodesmata

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25
Q

(multicellular signaling) plant cells connect using … (… in ….) which are … that allow them to share …, …, and … via ….

A

plasmodesmata; openings; cell walls; channels; water; food; communicate; chemical messages

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26
Q

(multicellular signaling) animal and plant cells have different types of cell junctions mainly because plants have …. and animal cells do not

A

cell walls

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27
Q

(cell to cell communication) protein-based hormones: initiating … and …, …/ … on target (i.e. …)

A

complex; target; binding sites; receptors; glycoproteins

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28
Q

(cell to cell communication) lipid-based hormone: no specific …, in …, don’t have any …

A

target; membrane; one effect

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29
Q

(cell to cell communication) neurons are …. Neurotransmitters, … signals, are released by neuron A in a certain pattern. Neuron B receives them as a signal for a specific i…. Neuron A is the signaling neuron, neuron B acts as the …

A

specialized cells; protein; transduction pathway

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30
Q

(cell to cell communication) neurotransmitters are an example of …. communication between cells. in this type of communication, regular chemicals are released into the small space between the cells, a …. these regulators attach to receptors embedded in the … of nearby cells

A

short distance; synapse; plasma membrane

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31
Q

(cell to cell communication) synaptic signaling: cell-cell communication style; between …, not ….

A

neurons; long-distance

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32
Q 
(cell to cell communication) photoreceptors in ...
master pituitary (...): releases ... --> releasing ...
A

anterior; hormones; factors

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33
Q

(cell to cell communication) fight or flight molecule/hormone:

A

epinephrine

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34
Q

(cell to cell communication) epinephrine (… effect, but signal is not the same for all cells) released into the …, where it is sent throughout the body.

A

far-reaching; bloodstream

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35
Q

(cell to cell communication) cell response to epinephrine
hair follicle muscle cell- …, hair …
sweat gland muscle cell- …, …. is released
lung cells- …, take in more …
heart cells - …, more … to cells for …
liver cells- release …, to supply more … to cells
other responses as well

A

contract; stands up; contract; sweat; relax; air; speed up; oxygen; respiration; glucose; energy

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36
Q

(cell to cell communication) hormones are produced within certain organs of the body can travel long distances through the body to reach different … in many regions of the body.
Example: hormone testosterone is produced by … cells, and travels through the blood stream stimulating increases in …, …, and the development of ….

A

target cells; endocrine; muscle mass; bone growth; male secondary sex characteristics

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37
Q

(feedback) a feedback loop is the path that leads from the initial generation of a signal to the …. they are the … sequence in biology. can be either … or …

A

modification of an event; cause-and-effect; positive; negative

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38
Q

(feedback) a negative feedback loop happens when the outcome of an action acts to … of the original signal.

A

reverse cause

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39
Q

(feedback) most control systems in the body involve negative feedback systems. cells send signals to other cells to fix problems they sense. this could involve the release of another signal to … a problem, or more simply, the … of the original signal
examples:
… control
regulation of …
control of … levels

A

counteract; shut down; body temperature; pituitary hormones; blood glucose

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40
Q

(feedback) a positive feedback loop is one which involves cells continually … a signal until an outcome is reached. the key to positive feedback loops is that any small change will be …

A

amplifying; amplified

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41
Q

(feedback) positive feedback examples:
activities associated with childbirth offer two examples:
as contractions happen during labor, the hormone … is released into the bloodstream. as levels of this hormone increase, more … occur, until the baby is born which stops the feedback loop
lactation: the more a newborn baby suckles, the more …. this is due to a positive feedback loop involving the hormone …

A

oxytocin; contractions; milk is produced; prolactin

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42
Q

a metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product. each step is catalyzed by a specific …
no .. = no …

A

enzyme; enzyme; reaction

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43
Q

(digestion) humans are … feeders

A

omnivorous bulk

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44
Q

(digestion) bulk feeders: ingesting

A

large things

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45
Q

(digestion) the human digestive tract is composed of …. it is regulated … by the … and the …

A

compartmentalized organs; hormonally; pancreas; brain

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46
Q

(digestion) cephalic phase- occurs before food enters the … and involves preparation of the body for … and … …, …, …and … of food stimulate the brain. …. are activated by … control

A

eating; digestion; sight; smell; taste; thought; salivary glands; neural

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47
Q

(digestion) amylase, an enzyme in saliva, hydrolyzes …, and glycogen into smaller …

A

starch; polysaccharides

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48
Q

(digestion) saliva combined with chewing (…) and movements of the pharynx and tongue turn the food into a …, a ball of …

A

mastication; bolus; partially digested food

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49
Q

(digestion) the bolus is passed into the …. from the mouth. smooth-muscle, wave-like contractions of the esophagus (…) move the bolus to the …. there the bolus is mixed into the digestive “soup” of the stomach. The stomach is …. and it churns the food into a ….. this is called the … phase

A

esophagus; peristalsis; stomach; muscular; homogenized acid chyme; gastric

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50
Q

(digestion) gastric phase: the stomach produces an enzyme that becomes active in the presence of acid. to avoid destruction of stomach cells, the active enzyme … is released into the … of the stomach as …. another cell releases … to make the lumen acidic. this activates the ….

A

pepsin; lumen; inactive pepsinogen; HCl; hydrolytic enzyme pepsin

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51
Q

(digestion) gastric phase: … cells produce pepsinogen, … cells produce HCl and all cells produce … to ensure a lining in the stomach that will protect the cells from the products they release. … breaks down proteins

A

chief; parietal; mucous; pepsin

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52
Q

(digestion) the pyloric sphincter is the transition from the gastric phase to the … phase. the major change that happens here is that … is ending and …. is beginning

A

intestinal; mechanical breakdown; absorption

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53
Q

(digestion) intestinal phase: the duodenum is the central processing area for …. the pancreas monitors the food entering the small intestine and releases … that engage …. The liver and gallbladder release … that help …, carbohydrates are given one last bath of …. and the brain is alerted to the influx of …

A

incoming food; hormones; multi organ responses; bile salts; absorb fats; hydrolytic enzymes; nutrients

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54
Q

(digestion) intestinal phase: the liver and gallbladder release bile salts that help absorb fats. the bile salts … (make …) the fat and make it possible for cells to …

A

emulsify; homogenized mixtures; absorb them

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55
Q 
(digestion) intestinal phase: the pancreas releases enzymes that breakdown proteins, lipids, and carbs: "
lipase- ...
amylase- ...
trypsin- ...
chymotrypsin- ....
A

fats; carbs; proteins; proteins

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56
Q

(digestion) intestinal phase: finally, the mix of enzymes and food move through the intestines where nutrients are … and undigestible material is released via the ..

A

absorbed; anus

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57
Q

(digestion) as stated, the digestive system exhibits … control over other systems in the body. this is largely accomplished through communication with the …, …, and ….

A

hormonal; brain; pancreas; liver

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58
Q

(digestion) normal blood glucose level is …. per … of blood. this must be maintained for normal body function to proceed. when the pancreas recognizes an influx of glucose into the blood it releases…

A

90 mg; 100 mL; insulin

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59
Q

(digestion) insulin causes an … of sugar by the liver to … and … at the same time it suppresses … in the brain

A

uptake; store; convert to fat; hunger

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60
Q

(digestion) if the pancreas recognizes a situation where blood glucose will drop too low, it releases a hormone called … the effect is the opposite of insulin (… increases and … decreases)

A

glucagon; hunger; glucose uptake

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61
Q

hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the thyroid gland makes too much …. the condition is often referred to as an …

A

thyroid hormone; overactive thyroid

62
Q

the thyroid gland controls how much … is being produced by the body, by increasing or decreasing the amount of thyroid hormone (T3) that is circulating in the blood. the thyroid is controlled by the brain which monitors levels of thyroid hormone and adjusts its signal accordingly

A

energy

63
Q

this is known as a feedback loop. thyroid stimulating hormone acts as a … in thyroid cells that activates the … for production of T3

A

co-enzyme; metabolic pathway

64
Q

when the brain has determined that there is sufficient T3 in the blood, it slows the release of TSH so the thyroid reduces the amount of … it is producing. in this way, the brain is exhibiting … regulation of the enzymes in the thyroid via release of a .. (TSH)

A

T3; allosteric; co-enzyme

65
Q

the enzyme at the start of the metabolic pathway that produces T3 requires TSH to work. TSH stabilizes the … of the enzyme, allowing it to bind with substrate A. Without TSH, substrate B cannot be produced and the pathway is … The amount of TSH dictates how much … the pathway will produce

A

active site; shut down; T3

66
Q

beta cells produce …. –> stimulus is ….

A

insulin; elevated blood glucose levels

67
Q

alpha cells produce … –> stimulus is …, prompts liver to … more …

A

glucagon; declined blood glucose levels; break down; glycogen

68
Q

islets of langerhans: clusters of cells that …. the hormones … and …

A

secrete; insulin; glucagon

69
Q

regulation of blood glucose levels is an example of … feedback

A

negative

70
Q

regulation of blood glucose is metabolism in the case of glucagon, as glucose is generated in the liver –> …

A

catabolism

71
Q

catabolism is … and anabolism is …

A

breaking down; building up

72
Q

endocrine system consists of: …, …, …, …, … gland, …. gland, …
gene expression in different organs is … but the actual genes are the …

A

hormones; pancreas; liver; hypothalamus; pituitary; thyroid; blood; different; same

73
Q

lipid based hormones enter the cell through the …

A

cell membrane

74
Q

receptors for hormones such as estrogen and testosterone, vitamin D, cholesterol, etc, are in the …. This is known because these hormones have a direct influence on … –> … influence

A

nucleus; gene expression; long-lasting

75
Q

…. first messenger binds to …–> …. –> … (…, ….) –> …

A

ligand; receptor; second messenger; enzymatic cascade; phosphorylation; protein kinase; gene expression

76
Q

coenzyme: in … with enzymes, e.g. coenzyme in …, water soluble …
coenzymes are enzymes themselves –> must be …

A

cooperation; cellular respiration; vitamins; protein-based

77
Q

cofactor: essential …, such as …

A

nutrients; minerals

78
Q

induced fit: enzyme changes … to …

A

shape slightly; bind to substrate

79
Q

(catalytic cycle) it is a cycle because it … and …, and this process repeats

A

binds; release

80
Q

(catalytic cycle) catalysts lower …, stabilizing … –> proper position of …/…
this raises the rate of the …

A

activation energy; transition states; reactants; substrates; chemical reaction

81
Q

(catalytic cycle) catalyst is … during the reaction

A

unchanged

82
Q

(catalytic cycle) in early cells, enzymes were made of … –> used …

A

RNA; nitrogenous bases

83
Q

(catalytic cycle) in modern cells, enzymes are a type of … –> uses …

A

protein; amino acids

84
Q

(catalytic cycle) example of an enzyme: lactase –> breaks down …
particular time when mammals need to break down milk: as a …
lactase is produced in … –> stops between … of age

A

lactose; baby; infant’s stomach; 6-9 months

85
Q

(catalytic cycle) lactose intolerance–> lactase is no longer … or is not …

A

produced; functional

86
Q

(catalytic cycle) … ending identifies an enzyme

A

ase

87
Q

(catalytic cycle) enzyme holds substrate in such a way that it induces the

A

reaction to take place

88
Q

(catalytic cycle) increased concentration of enzyme increases

A

reaction rate

89
Q

(catalytic cycle) endothermic would refer only to energy as …, endergonic is a generally … (e.g. …)

A

heat; energy absorbing reaction; photosynthesis

90
Q

(catalytic cycle) transition state: this is what enzymes

A

stabilize

91
Q

(catalytic cycle) amount of energy released/absorbed … with/without the presence of the enzyme

A

does not change

92
Q

(temperature, pH, and inhibition) beyond optimal, enzyme is ….
if this happens to the active site (the active site’s … is change), then rate of reaction would go to …

A

denatured; shape; 0

93
Q

(temperature, pH, and inhibition) fevers … bacteria’s enzymes and stop infection

A

denature

94
Q

(temperature, pH, and inhibition) optimal pH in body is usually …

A

6-8

95
Q

(temperature, pH, and inhibition) cofactors: help support …, helper to bind at … to make enzyme active
also called …
examples include …, … (not all- mainly … such as …, …, …, etc)

A

enzymes; active site; coenzymes; minerals; vitamins; water soluble; vitamin B; nyacin; vitamin C

96
Q

(temperature, pH, and inhibition) cofactors can act as

A

inhibitors

97
Q

(temperature, pH, and inhibition) competitive inhibition: competing for …, similar in shape to ….
e.g. CO –> looks so much like …, blocks … from function
competitive inhibition can be stopped –> increase … so that it outnumbers …

A

active site; substrate; O2; hemoglobin; concentration of substrate; inhibitors

98
Q

(temperature, pH, and inhibition) noncompetitive inhibition: binds to …, acts in …, sometimes …

A

allosteric site; feedback inhibition; irreversible

99
Q

(temperature, pH, and inhibition) allosteric regulation: is …, allosteric activator: binds to allosteric site to ….; allosteric inhibition: binds to allosteric site to …

A

reversible; open up active site; close active site

100
Q

(negative feedback) glucocorticoids (hormone) parallel to …:
corticoids (e.g. cortisol) from … of … –> unlike epinephrine, … response to …
adrenal gland –> hormone (…) –> released by …, epinephrine is … response to …

A

epinephrine; cortex; kidney; long-term; stress; epinephrine; medulla; short term; stress

101
Q

ADH is always … feedback

A

negative

102
Q

bleeding out –> … feedback as blood pressure …

A

positive; decreases

103
Q

protein-based hormones: typically … effect, require a …

A

short term; receptor

104
Q

(quorum sensing) occurs in …

A

prokaryotes

105
Q

(quorum sensing) nucleoid region- …

A

1 circular DNA

106
Q

(quorum sensing) … bacterial cells (….) in/on humans at any given time
humans have … cells of their own
humans have … genes, but … times more bacterial genes
humans …% bacterial cells, …% human

A

10 trillion; prokaryotic symbionts; 1 trillion; 30,000; 100; 90; 10

107
Q

(quorum sensing) prokaryotic symbionts act as an …, make …, …, educate your …

A

armor; vitamins; digest food; immune system

108
Q

(quorum sensing) vibrio fischeri: … bacteria, … –> made light when … increased, signal producing … that makes a …, receptor on cell surface that molecule fits in like a …. when there is a lot of that molecule on the outside it binds to the receptor which causes the light to turn it on

A

marine; bioluminescence; population density; protein; molecule; key;

109
Q

(quorum sensing) bacteria communicate with one another –> turn on …

A

group behavior

110
Q

(quorum sensing) virulence: in overcoming a large host, bacteria wait until they have … and … sufficiently and launch a … against the host. quorum sensing always controls ….

A

grown; spread; collective attack; pathogenicity

111
Q

in every species of bacteria, … of molecule is the same, but …. component is different
- intraspecies communication: particular … for each …

A

left-hand; right-hand; language; species

112
Q

bacteria are multilingula; second enzyme with second signal that allows for

A

interspecies communication

113
Q

universal communication molecule: small, …

A

five carbon molecule

114
Q

new antibiotics that inhibit bacteria … and …
2 strategies: one targeting … and one targeting …
jam … of the real molecule in … (…. molecules)

A

speech; learning; intraspecies communication; interspecies communication system; recognition; receptor; anti-quorum sensing

115
Q

bacteria made rules for how … work –> hope is that we can apply what we learn from bacteria to more … organisms

A

multicellular organisms; complex

116
Q

(digestive system) tube within a tube, continuous with … Aka … & … associated

A

outside; alimentary canal; accessory organs

117
Q

(digestive system) tube- where …/… travels

A

food/waste

118
Q

(digestive system) components: …, …, …, …, …, …- exit for …

A

mouth; esophagus; stomach; small intestine; colon; anus; waste

119
Q

(digestive system) exit of waste through waste is … –> …- …. muscles

A

voluntary; sphincter; circular

120
Q

(digestive system) accessory organs: …, … - … (arrangement of …, suggests what you …) incisors for … and …, molars for .., canines for …

A

tongue; teeth; dentition; teeth; eat; biting; pulling away; grinding; shearing

121
Q

(digestive system) accessory organs: salivary glands- produce …, which has ….
…
…- makes …(…)
…- stores … and releases it when needed
….

A

saliva; salivary amylase; pancreas; liver; bile; salts; gallbladder; bile; appendix

122
Q

(digestive system) two types of digestion:
mechanical digestion - …. breakdown, …, …/…
chemical digestion- … action, specific …. breakdown

A

bulk; non-specific; chewing; mastication; enzymatic; substrate

123
Q

(digestive system) mouth-… phase (what’s happening in the …):
… - food moves into the body
mechanical digestion- … and …, …- … food
chemical digestion- salivary amylase breaks down starch into smaller ….
“…”- ball of moistened food exiting the mouth, moving to …: … control -….

A

cephalic; head; ingestion; teeth; tongue;; saliva; moistens; saccharides; bolus; esophagus; voluntary; swallowing

124
Q

(digestive system) esophagus: no …/…, just a …, … muscular action- smooth muscular contraction, … –> …
… sphincter opens and bolus moves into the …

A

chemical; mechanical digestion; tube; involuntary; wavelike; peristalsis; cardiac; stomach

125
Q

(digestive system) stomach:
muscular contraction- increased surface area called …
… undergo mechanical digestion - …

A

rugae; rugae; churns

126
Q

(digestive system) stomach: HCl- … breakdown, … function as well (killing …), HCl …, neither chemical/mechanical can fully identify this

A

acidic; immune; bacteria; non-specific;

127
Q

(digestive system) stomach: chemical digestion- pepsinogen first produced as precursor …, activated by …

A

pepsin; HCl

128
Q

(digestive system) stomach: pepsin only functions within …, important because it would … otherwise

A

stomach contents; break down cells

129
Q

(digestive system) pepsin breaks down … into smaller …

A

polypeptides; peptides

130
Q

(digestive system) stomach: mucus lining- …, blocks …. (HCl & pepsin)

A

protection; harmful substances

131
Q

(digestive system) … allows for stomach emptying
bolus turns into …- a liquid version of the bolus
at this point only … and … was ….
rate at which stomach empties depends on what you … and …

A

pyloric sphincter; acid chyme; protein; starch; partially broken down; eat; hormonal control

132
Q

(digestive system) small intestine:
3 components-
…- 1/3, where rest of … takes place, making … (…, …, …)
… and …- exclusive for … of …

A

duodenum; digestion; monomers; amino acids; monosaccharides; fatty acids; amino acids; monosaccharides; fatty acids; jejunum; ileum; absorption; monomers

133
Q

(digestive system) small intestine: … duct & … duct leads into the duodenum

A

common bile duct; common pancreatic duct

134
Q

(digestive system) bile salts help breakdown

A

fats

135
Q

(digestive system) small intestine: common pancreatic duct:
… juice
releases large amount of …. to act as a …
also releases …

A

pancreatic; bicarbonate; buffer; enzymes

136
Q

(digestive system) pancreatic enzymes:
… - breaks down fats
…- breaks down carbohydrates
… and … - break down proteins

A

lipase; pancreatic amylase; trypsin; chymotrypsin

137
Q

(digestive system) small intestine: …- lymphatic system, absorbs …

A

lacteal; fatty acids

138
Q

(digestive system) from small intestine there is movement into

A

colon

139
Q

(digestive system) colon: reabsorbs …, … live there and produce … like …, compacts … including … like … (…), solid fecal matter is stored in the …- holding tank for …

A

water; symbiotic bacteria; vitamins; vitamin K; fecal material; undigested materials; cellulose; fiber; rectum; waste

140
Q

hyperpolarization prevents the signal from

A

jumping backwards

141
Q

channel proteins are only used in …. –> …

A

passive transport; uniport

142
Q

a signal tranduction pathway entails a series of chemical reactions through which a cell receives a … and executes a …

A

signal; cellular response

143
Q

the signal activates a … on the cell membrane, initiating transduction through prompting a …. which causes …., constituting the cell’s response

A

receptor protein; metabolic pathway; transcription of gene/genes

144
Q

an example of signal transduction in relation to a polypeptide is the insulin signaling pathway: insulin binds to the receptor protein which activates a .., …, which activates … which then activates a … generating a …. that leads to an … which reduces glucose levels in the blood as it causes the cells to …

A

second messenger; cAMP; protein kinase; signaling cascade; transcription factor; alteration in gene expression; take in more glucose

145
Q

signaling cascade activated by …., which activates the molecule by making it … –> basically … is moved from molecule to molecule
this then forms transcription factors to alter gene expression of the gene that …

A

phosphorylation; unstable; phosphate; relates to the function

146
Q

villi increase absorption of …, …, …, and …

A

amino acids; monosaccharides; vitamins; minerals

147
Q

islets of langerhans are a cluster of cells within the pancreas that secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon. stimuli signal is ….

A

blood sugar levels

148
Q

beta cells in islets are stimulated by … blood glucose levels, responding by secreting … prompting a reaction through which insulin causes cells to … glucose out of the blood to … the blood glucose levels to the normal range

A

elevated; insulin; absorb; lower

149
Q

alpha cells in the islets are stimulated by a …. in normal blood glucose levels and respond by secreting …. prompting a reaction through which glucagon prompts the liver to …., generating glucose that is then …

A

decrease; glucagon; break down stored glycogen; released into the blood stream

150
Q

blood glucose regulation can be encapsulated as a … feedback response to …, as the pancreas responds to glucose levels in the blood

A

negative; external stimuli

AP Bio (32 decks)

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