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AP Bio > Membranes & Proteins Unit: Textbook & Article Notes > Flashcards

Membranes & Proteins Unit: Textbook & Article Notes Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

(ch 6) metabolism is all … that occur in a cell

A

chemical reactions

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2
Q

(ch 6) … reactions release energy, where … reactions absorb energy

A

exergonic; endergonic

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3
Q

(ch 6) many reactions in the body are… (e.g. protein synthesis, nerve conduction, muscle contraction)
for these to occur, they have be coupled with … reactions

A

endergonic; exergonic

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4
Q

(ch 6) enzyme: protein that functions to … without itself being affected by the reaction
allow reactions to occur under … conditions
regulate …, partly by eliminating ….

A

speed a chemical reaction; mild; metabolism; nonspecific side reactions

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5
Q

(ch 6) not all enzymes are proteins

example: …, which are made of …, act in synthesis of RNA and proteins at ribosomes. biological catalysts

A

ribozymes

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6
Q

(ch 6) metabolic pathways; reactants for first reaction converted into …, and these act as the … for the next reaction until the final product is attained

A

products; reactants

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7
Q

(ch 6) one metabolic pathway can interact with several others, because different pathways have several …

A

molecules in common

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8
Q

(ch 6) energy of activation: energy that needs to be … to cause molecules to …
prevents molecules from spontaneously …
enzymes … this

A

added; react with one another; degrading in a cell; lower

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9
Q

(ch 6) metabolic pathways are useful for …/…. small increments of molecular energy. they also allow cells to … and … changing environmental conditions

A

releasing; capturing; regulate; respond to

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10
Q

(ch 6) reactants in enzymatic reactions are called the … for that enzyme

A

substrates

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11
Q

(ch 6) most times, only one small part of the enzyme, the … site, associates directly with the substrate
in this site, the enzyme and substrate are positioned such that they easily fit together. the site undergoes a slight … to accommodate the substrate –> … model

A

active; shape change; induced fit

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12
Q

(ch 6) enzymes are not … by the reaction, but some may … in the reaction (e.g. trypsin breaks down … in digesting proteins0

A

used up; participate; peptide bonds

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13
Q

(ch 6) specificity of enzymes allows for

A

metabolic regulation

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14
Q

(ch 6) presence of some enzymes helps determine which metabolic pathways are

A

operative

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15
Q

(ch 6) rate of reaction: amount of …/ ….

A

product produced; unit time

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16
Q

(ch 6) increasing amount of … and … can increase reaction rate

A

substrate; enzyme

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17
Q

(ch 6) any factor that alters active site shape can … reaction rate

A

decrease

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18
Q

(ch 6) cofactors: additional molecules that help … by helping to … or participate int he reaction

A

speed the reaction rate; bind the substrate to the active site

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19
Q

(ch 6) since reactions are dependent on collisions, more substrate leads to more collisions between … which then allows more .. to be …

A

enzymes; product; formed quickly

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20
Q

(ch 6) there is a point at which the maximum … is achieved

A

reaction rate

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21
Q

(ch 6) at respective pH values, enzymes can maintain normal … which allows for optimal function –> optimal pH is where … is highest

A

structural configuration; reaction rate

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22
Q

(ch 6) when temps increase, enzyme activity …, because more …. between enzymes and substrates occur

A

increases; effective collisions

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23
Q

(ch 6) if temps are too high, … occurs

A

denaturation

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24
Q

(ch 6) most enzymes need an inorganic ion/nonprotein organic molecule at active site to work properly –> …
e.g. Cu, Zn, Fe –> inorganic ions
nonprotein organic molecules are …

A

cofactors; coenzymes

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25
Q

(ch 6) vitamins are small organic molecules that are required in trace amounts for

A

synthesis of coenzymes

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26
Q

(ch 6) vitamins become part of a coenzyme’s …. if it is not available, enzymatic activity will … and a … arises

A

molecular structure; decrease; vitamin deficiency

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27
Q

(ch 6) enzyme inhibition: when a molecule binds to an enzyme and … its activity, occurs when sufficient … is present

A

decreases; end product

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28
Q

(ch 6) noncompetitive inhibition: inhibitor binds to the enzyme at location other than … this site is the …

A

active site; allosteric site

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29
Q

(ch 6) when an inhibitor is at the allosteric site, the active site …

A

changes shape

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30
Q

(ch 6) competitive inhibition occurs when inhibitor and substrate compete to …
helps to regulate ….
enzyme inhibition is usually …., as the enzyme normally doesn’t get damaged

A

bind to active site; amount of product; reversible

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31
Q

(ch 34) digestion of food in humans is an … event

A

extracellular

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32
Q

(ch 34) mechanical digestion involves the … of food into smaller particles

A

physical breakdown

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33
Q

(ch 34) chemical digestion requires … secreted by … or by …, which break down particular macromolecules into smaller molecules that can be absorbed

A

enzymes; digestive tract; accessory glands

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34
Q

(ch 34) mouth- ..- is the beginning of the digestive tract

A

oral cavity

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35
Q

(ch 34) palate: … of the mouth, separates the … from the …
… palate and … palate

A

roof; oral cavity; nasal cavity; anterior hard; posterior soft

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36
Q

(ch 34) uvula: posterior extension of the

A

soft palate

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37
Q

(ch 34) 3 major pairs of salivary glands send … by way of … into the mouth

A

juices; ducts

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38
Q

(ch 34) … is typical end product of salivary amylase digestion

A

maltose

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39
Q

(ch 34) while in the mouth, food is manipulated by the muscular …, which has … and … receptors

A

tongue; touch; pressure

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40
Q

(ch 34) tongue also has …, sensory receptors that are stimulated by the … of food

A

taste buds; chemical composition

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41
Q

(ch 34) tongue composed of … muscle and an outer layer of … membrane mixes chewed food with saliva, forming bolus in preparation for …

A

striated; mucous; swallowing

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42
Q

(ch 34) pharynx: passageway where food is …, the … and … passages come together here and then separate

A

swallowed; digestive; respiratory

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43
Q

(ch 34) esophagus: tubular structure of about … cm in length that takes food the stomach; passageway where … pushes food to stomach

A

25; peristalsis

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44
Q

(ch 34) sphincters: muscles that … and act as …

tubes close when sphincters … and open when sphincters …

A

encircle tubes; valves; contract; relax

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45
Q

(ch 34) lower gastroesophageal sphincter located where esophagus enters the … when food enters, the sphincter … for a few seconds and then closes again

A

stomach; relaxes

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46
Q

(ch 34) heartburn occurs due to acid reflux, when some of the stomach’s contents escape into the

A

esophagus

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47
Q

(ch 34) when vomiting occurs, abdominal muscles and the diaphragm (muscle that separates thoracic and abdominal cavities)

A

contract

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48
Q

(ch 34) when food is swallowed, soft palate moves back to close off they

A

nasopharynx

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49
Q

(ch 34) epiglottis: flap of tissue covering the …– opening into the ..

A

glottis; trachea

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50
Q

(ch 34) bolus moves through the pharynx into the esophagus because

A

air passages are blocked

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51
Q

(ch 34) lumen: … space of digestive tract where food passes as it is digested

A

central

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52
Q

(ch 34) wall of digestive tract consists of 4 layers:
innermost: mucosa- type of mucous membrane, produces .. .to protect the wall from … inside the lumen

second layer: submucosa- loose connective tissue that contains …, …, …, and …

third layer: muscularis- contains 2 layers of smooth muscle; inner, circular layer encircles the tract and the outer, longitudinal layer lies in the same direction as the tract. contraction of these muscles, under … nervous control, accounts for the movement of the gut contents from esophagus to the rectum by …

fourth layer: serosa- secrets watery fluid that lubricates outer surfaces of the digestive tract and reduces … between organs

A

mucus; digestive enzymes; blood vessels; lymphatic vessels; nerves; lymph nodules; involuntary; peristalsis; friction

53
Q

(ch 34) wall of the stomach has deep folds, …., that disappear as the stomach fills to capacity (about …)

A

rugae; 1 L

54
Q

(ch 34) muscular walls of the stomach contract vigorously and … with … secreted whenever food enters the stomach

A

mix food; juices

55
Q

(ch 34) epithelial lining of the stomach has millions of … which lead to … that produce …

A

gastric pits; gastric glands; gastric juice

56
Q

(ch 34) gastric glands produce so much HCl that stomach has a typical pH of about …
usually kills bacteria and other microorganisms
stops activity of …, which functions in near-neutral pH

A

2.0; salivary amylase

57
Q

(ch 34) chyme’s entrance into small intestine sets off a neutral reflex that causes pyloric sphincter to vigorously contract and close temporarily–> slow manner in which chyme enters small intestine allows for

A

thorough digestion

58
Q

(ch 34) bile emulsifies fat- causes fat to

A

disperse in water

59
Q

(ch 34) small intestine has slighly … pH due to presence of …, which neutralizes chyme

A

basic; sodium bicarbonate

60
Q

(ch 34) small intestine has a large surface area due to …- fingerlike projections that have an outer layer of columnar epithelial cells, which have thousands of microscopic extensions called …

A

villi; microvilli

61
Q

(ch 34) microvilli hold …, called …

also increase the … of the villus, which allows for … of nutrients

A

intestinal enzymes; brush-border enzymes; surface area; absorption

62
Q

(ch 34) sugars & amino acids enter villus blood capillaries. glycerol and fatty acids enter the epithelial cells of the villi, and in these cells they are joined and packaged as …, which enter …

A

lipoprotein droplets; lacteals

63
Q

(ch 34) after nutrients are absorbed, they are carried to all cells via the

A

bloodstream

64
Q

(ch 34) large intestine absorbs …, …, and some ..

A

water; salts; vitamins

65
Q

(ch 34) large intestine stores .. until elimination

A

indigestible material

66
Q

(ch 34) appendix thought to serve as reservoir for … that help maintain intestinal health

A

good bacteria

67
Q

(ch 34) about 1.5 L of water enters digestive tract daily due to eating/drinking, an additional 8.5 L from carrying substances secreted by digestive glands. 95% of this is absorbed by …, most of rest by ..

A

small intestine; colon

68
Q

(ch 34) if water is not reabsorbed, …occurs, potentially causing severe … and … loss

A

diarrhea; dehydration; ion

69
Q

(ch 34) symbiotic bacteria live in colon that protect against more … of bacteria and produce … such as … (necessary to …)

A

pathogenic species; vitamins; vitamin K; blood clotting

70
Q

(ch 34) feces consists primarily of.., intestinal …, and also has undigested …, …, … products (e.g. bile pigments), … material, …, and dead … from intestinal lining

A

water; bacteria; plant material; fats; waste; inorganic; mucus; cells

71
Q

(ch 34) pancreas has endocrine and exocrine functin:

endocrine: section of … and … for blood glucose regulation
exocrine: … juice, which contains NaHCO3 that neutralizes acid chyme, … which digests starch, trypsin digesting protien, and lipase for fat

A

insulin; glucagon; pancreatic; pancreatic amylase

72
Q

(ch 34) liver is largest … in the body

A

gland

73
Q

(ch 34) liver removes and metabolizes .. substances from blood, removes and stores .. and …, makes many of the … found in blood plasma and helps regulate quanitity of … in blood, maintains blood … levels, forms …, produces … which is stored in the …

A

toxic; iron; vitamisn; proteins; cholesterol; glucose; urea; bile; gallbladder

74
Q

(ch 34) emulsifying fat provides a much larger … that can be acted upon by lipase

A

surface area

75
Q

(ch 34) excess … stored in gallbladder; when it is needed, gallbladder contracts, releasing it into the duodenum via the …

A

bile; common bile duct

76
Q

(ch 34) protein digestion begins in the

A

stomach

77
Q

(ch 34) enzyme trypsin secreted as …, which is converted to trypsin in the …

A

trypsinogen; duodenum

78
Q

(ch 34) maltase and peptidases are enzymes that complete … into glucose and amino acids, respectively

A

starch and protein digestion

79
Q

(ch 34) lipase generates end products of … and …, which enter villi and are rejoined and packaged as lipoprotein droplets which enter lacteals

A

glycerol; 3 fatty acids

80
Q

(ch 34) fiber includes various indigestible carbs from plants
adds … to fecal matter, stimulating … in the colon, preventing … and keeping you … longer
soluble fiber prevents … and … from being absorbed and therfroe protects against heart disease

A

bulk; movement; constipation; feeling full; bile acids; cholesterol

81
Q

(ch 34) vitamins are organic compunds that regulate various metabolic activities. many are part of …
minerals: 20 elements needed for various … functions, such as regulation of biochemical reactions, maintenance of fluid balance, and incorporation into certain structures and compounds

A

coenzymes; physiological

82
Q

(ch 5) junctions between cells allow for

A

coordinated behavior

83
Q

(ch 5) adhesion junctions: mechanical attachment of two adjacent cells
desmosomes: internal cytoplasmic plaques attached to intermediate filament cytoskeleton within cell. joined by … called cadherins beween cells

A

integral membrane proteins

84
Q

(ch 5) desmosomes: sturdy but flexible sheet of cells, present in some … where tissues get .. (e.g. heart, stomach, bladder)

A

organs; stretched

85
Q

(ch 5) hemidesmosome: intermediate filaments of cytoskeleton are attached to the … through integrin proteins

A

ECM

86
Q

(ch 5) … junctions are the most common type of intercellular junction between cells

A

adhesion junctions

87
Q

(ch 5) tight junctions: a type of adhesion junction that bring cells even closer together than desmosomes
connect … between adjacent cells
tissues that serve as … are held together by these (e.g. in intestine to prevent digestive juices from reaching the rest of the body, and in the kidney, to keep urine within the tubules)

A

plasma membranes; barriers

88
Q

(ch 5) gap junctions: allow for …, formed when two identical … join
lends … to the cells, but allows … and … to pass between them
important in heart and smooth muscle because it allows flow of ions required for cells to … as a unit

A

cellular communication; plasma membrane channels; strength; small molecules; ions; contract

89
Q

(ch 5) cytoplasm of living plant cells connected by … –> narrow, membrane-lined channels that pass through the …

A

plasmodesmata; cell wall

90
Q

(ch 5) cytoplasmic strands within plasmodesmata allow direct … of some materials between adjacent plant cells and eventually … all the cells in a plant
allow only … and small … to pass freely from cell to cell, meaning that plant cells can maintain their own concentrations of larger substances and differentiate into particular cell types

A

exchange; connect; water; solutes

91
Q

(ch 31) negative feedback is the primary homeostatic mechanism that keeps a variable close to a …../…

A

particular value; set point

92
Q

(ch 31) two components to negative feedback (and feedback in general): … and …

A

sensor; control centor

93
Q

(ch 31) sensor detects a … in internal environment

control center initiates an … to bring conditions back to normal –> sensor is … when normal conditions are reached

A

change; action; deactivated

94
Q

(ch 31) negative feedback is present when the output of the system … initial stimulus
e.g. blood pressure rising, receptors signal a control center that stops sending nerve impulses to arterial walls, causing them to …

A

dampens; relax

95
Q

(ch 31) regulation of body temp (sensor and control center located in …)
above normal temp: blood vessels of skin …, more blood flows near the body’s surface, where heat is … to the environment; nervous system activates … –> …
below normal temps: blood vessels of skin …, conserving …; nerve impulses to … for …, which generates heat

A

hypothalamus; dilate; lost; sweat glands; evaporative cooling; constrict; heat; skeletal muscles; shivering;

96
Q

(ch 31) positive feedback: mechanism that brings about a continually greater change in the …

A

same direction

97
Q

(ch 31) example of positive feedback:
head of baby begins pressing against cervix, stimulating sensory receptors –> nerve impulses reach the brain, causing pituitary gland to secrete …, a hormone that travels in the blood and causes the uterus to …, cervix is increasingly stimulated, strengthing … until birth occurs

A

oxytocin; contract; uterine contractions

98
Q

(ch 31) positive feedback can be .. (e.g. when a fever causes metabolic changes that push it even higher)
other examples of positive feedback: blood …, stomach’s digestion of…

A

harmful; clotting; protein

99
Q

(ch 40) endocrine system largely composed of … that secrete … carried by the … to target cells –> leads to … effect (… but … response)

A

glands; hormones; bloodstream; longer lasting; slower; prolonged

100
Q

(ch 40) exocrine glands secrete products into …, taking them to … of other …/… of the body

A

ducts; lumens; organs; outside

101
Q

(ch 40) endocrine glands secrete products into the …, delivering them throughout the body

A

bloodstream

102
Q

(ch 40) hormones are chemical signals that are a means of … between cells, body parts, and even individuals

A

communication

103
Q

(ch 40) only certain cells, called … cells, can respond to a specific hormone –> these carry … for that hormone

A

target; receptor proteins

104
Q

(ch 40) pheromones: chemical signals that influence the

A

behavior of other individuals

105
Q

(ch 40) peptide hormones: peptides, proteins, glycoproteins, and modified amino acids
steroid hormones: all have same molecular complex of four C rings because they all derive from

A

cholesterol

106
Q

(ch 40) action of peptide hormones:
when first messenger binds to receptor, a … such as cAMP is formed
cAMP activates a … enzyme, which activates another enzyme –> …/… …
enzymes are activated through …

A

second messenger; protein kinase; signaling/enzyme cascade; phosphorylation

107
Q

(ch 40) action of steroid hormones: only produced by adrenal cortex, ovaries, and testes
do not bind to plasma membrane receptors, but rather, … the cell due to lipid nature. once inside, they bind to …, usually in the … but sometimes in the …

A

enter; internal receptor; nucleus; cytoplasm

108
Q

(ch 40) action of steroid hormones: hormone-receptor complex binds with … and activates certain …, mRNA moves to … and … occurs

A

DNA; genes; ribosomes; protein synthesis

109
Q

(ch 40) steroids act more slowly than peptides because it takes more time to synthesize new proteins than to activate enzymes that are already present in cells, BUT: …, more … effects

A

longer; far-reaching

110
Q

(ch 37) an electrical potential difference across a membrane is called the

A

membrane potential

111
Q

(ch 37) resting potential, -70 mV, membrane potential when axon is not conducting an …, inside of the neuron is more … than outside
higher concentration of … outside of the axon and higher concentration of … inside of the axon

A

impulse; negative; Na+; K+

112
Q

(ch 37) in myelinated axons, gated ion channels that produce an action potential are concentrated at the

A

nodes of Ranvier

113
Q

(ch 37) saltatory conduction: action potential

A

jumps from node to node

114
Q

(ch 37) when an action potential has moved on, previous node undergoes a refractory period –> sodium gates …
action potentials cannot move …, always moving down an axon toward its …

A

unable to open; backward; terminals

115
Q

(ch 37) intensity of a signal is determined by the amount of … generated within a given time span

A

nerve impulses

116
Q

(ch 37) axon terminal: fine ending with a small swelling at end of axon, lie close to dendrites of another neuron, region of proximity:

A

synapse

117
Q

(ch 37) transmission across a synapse is carried out by …, stored in …

A

neurotransmitters; synaptic vesicles

118
Q

(ch 37) when impulses reach an axon terminal, gated channels for … open, and … enters the terminal, stimulating … of neurotransmitters which then bind to .. on postsynaptic membranes –> can lead to a response of …/…

A

ca2+; ca2+; exocytosis; receptor proteins; excitation; inhibition

119
Q

(ch 37) acetylcholine excites … but inhibits …

A

skeletal muscle; cardiac muscle

120
Q

(ch 37) dopamine is involved in …, …, and …

A

emotions; learning; attention

121
Q

(ch 37) serotonin is involved in …, …, …, and …

A

thermoregulation; sleeping; emotions; perception

122
Q

(ch 37) endorphins bind to natural opiod receptors and contribute to a feeling of …. –> produced as response to …

A

tranquility; stress

123
Q

(ch 37) after a neurotransmitter has been released into the synaptic cleft and initiated a response, it is either;
…. by enzymes in postsynaptic membrane
… by presynaptic cell for …/….
this prevents continus …/… of postsynaptic membranes

A

inactivated; reabsorbed; repackagin; molecular membranes

124
Q

(ch 37) inhibitory signals … excitatory signals

A

cancel out

125
Q

(ch 37) if a neuron receives many excitatory signals (either from synapse at rapid rate/ from different synapses) axon will likely

A

transmit nerve impulse

126
Q

(ch 37) when excitatory neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, … diffuses into postsynaptic neuron and action potential begins

A

Na+

127
Q

(ch 37) hydrogen ions in low concentration on one side of membrane (chloroplasts & mitoc) and are dpumped to other side with addition of energy. establishes a larger electrochemical gradient across membrane and potential energy of this gradient can be used to do work, becoming KE for ATP production.
H+ can move back across membrane by interacting with

A

atp synthases

128
Q

(ch 37) atp synthases have … that allow H+ to flow …. , providing … for ATP syntahse enzyme to produce ATP from ADP and phosphate (chemiosmosis)
atp production is tied to establishment of an …
movement of h+ back across the membrane is …

A

channels; down its electrochemical gradeitn; ke; H+ gradient; passive

AP Bio (32 decks)

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