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AP Bio > Nephron & Osmoregulation Notes > Flashcards

Nephron & Osmoregulation Notes Flashcards

1
Q

osmoregulation: balancing levels of … and … in the body; typically removes …. from body through process called …

A

water; salts; metabolic wastes; excretion

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2
Q

breakdown of nitrogen-containing molecules (e.g. …. and ….), results in excess …. that must be excreted; depending on species, this excess may be excreted as …, …, or …

A

amino acids; nucleic acids; nitrogen waste; ammonia; urea; uric acid

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3
Q

ammonia is formed with …. energy by addition of …. to …. removed from …

A

little to no; hydrogen ions; amino groups; amino acids

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4
Q

ammonia is …, but is ok as excretory product if there is sufficient … to … it from the body –> therefore, … and … animals, for the most part, excrete ammonia

A

toxic; water; wash; fish; aquatic

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5
Q

urea is excreted by: …, …, and ….

A

sharks; mammals; adult amphibians

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6
Q

urea is much less … than ammonia, and can be excreted in moderately …. solution

A

toxic; concentrated

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7
Q

urea conserves …., but requires expenditure of ….

A

body water; energy

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8
Q

urea is produced in the … by a set of energy-requiring … reactions known as the ….

A

liver; enzymatic; urea cycle

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9
Q

urea cycle: carrier molecules take up … and 2 … molecules, releasing …

A

carbon dioxide; ammonia; urea

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10
Q

uric acid: synthesized by long, complex series of enzymatic reactions that requires an even greater amount of … than urea synthesis

A

energy

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11
Q

uric acid is not very … and is nearly …., thus allowing for further

A

toxic; insoluble; water conservation

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12
Q

uric acid can be more … than urea

A

concentrated

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13
Q

uric acid excreted by …, …, and …

A

insects; reptiles; birds

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14
Q

reptiles and birds: dilute solution of uric acid passes from kidneys to … (reservoir for products of the …, …., and … systems)–> these contents are then refluxed into the …., where … is reabsorbed

A

cloacal; digestive; urinary; reproductive; water

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15
Q

production of insoluble, mostly nontoxic uric acid is advantageous for shelled embryos because all …. are stored in the … until hatching

A

nitrogenous wastes; shell

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16
Q

kidneys are connected to the …. –> duct that transports urine to …., which is then stored there until excreted through the …

A

ureter; urinary bladder; urethra

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17
Q

kidneys have 3 parts:
…. –> outer region of the kidney
…. –> lies on inner side of … (middle of kidney), comprised of 6-10 ….
….. –> innermost part of kidney, where urine is collected and carried to bladder via a ureter; ….

A

renal cortex; renal medulla; renal cortex; renal pyramids; renal pelvis; hollow chamber

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18
Q

each kidney is composed over over …. tubules called nephrons –> basic …. of the kidney

A

1 million; functional unit

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19
Q

nephrons produce

A

urine

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20
Q

structure of nephrons: … –> …. –> … –> … –> … (this then goes to ….)

A

glomerular capsule; proximal convoluted tubule; loop of Henle; distal convoluted tubule; collecting duct; renal pelvis

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21
Q

each nephron has its own blood supply –> …. branching from …

A

arterioles; renal artery

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22
Q

arterioles (afferent arterioles) divide to form a capillary bed called the …. which drains into an efferent arteriole which branches into a second capillary bed around tubular parts of nephron (….)

A

glomerulus; peritubular capillaries

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23
Q

fundamental process of urine formation: initially … large amount of … and … out of the blood, and then …. much of the materials

A

filtering; water; solutes; reabsorbing

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24
Q

urine production involves 3 distinct processes:

  1. ….
  2. tubular … at convoluted tubules
  3. tubular …. at convoluted tubules
A

glomerular filtration; reabsorption; secretion

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25
Q

glomerular filtration: movement of small molecules across glomerular wall into …. due to ….
includes: …, …, …, and ….

A

bowman’s capsule; blood pressure; water; nutrients; salts; wastes

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26
Q

glomerular walls are … more permeable than walls of most capillaries in the body

A

100x

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27
Q

molecules that enter the bowman’s capsule –> ….

DOES NOT include: …. and ….

A

glomerular filtrate; plasma proteins; red blood cells

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28
Q

Total blood volume averages about …. liters and this is filtered every … minutes –> … liters of filtrate produced daily

A

5; 40; 180

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29
Q

osmolarity: measure of the potential for ….; water tends to move from a solution with … osmolarity into a solution with … osmolarity

A

osmosis; low; high

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30
Q

initially, osmolarity of filtrate and blood are nearly equal, so osmosis does not occur. Sodium ions are actively pumped into …. and chloride follows …. –> adjusts blood osmolarity, such that water passively moves ….
… to … % of salt and water is reabsorbed in the …

A

peritubular capillary; passively; into blood; 60; 70

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31
Q

At PCV, nutrients (e.g. … and ….) return to the …. –> only molecules recognized by carrier proteins are actively …

A

glucose; amino acids; blood; reabsorbed

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32
Q

cells of PCV have many microvilli to increase …. and many mitochondria to supply … needed for active transport

A

surface area; energy

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33
Q

glucose is ordinarily completely reabsorbed: BUT, if there is more glucose than be handled by carriers (as in diabetics), it appears in …., which results in …. being reabsorbed

A

urine; less water

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34
Q

Urea …. reabsorbed (about …% of that filtered)

A

passively; 50

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35
Q

tubular secretion: a 2nd way by which substances are removed from … and added to ….

A

blood; tubular fluid

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36
Q

substances eliminated by tubular secretion: …, …., …., …., …, ….

A

uric acid; H+, NH3 (ammonia), creatinine, histamine, penicillin

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37
Q

tubular secretion helps rid the body of harmful compounds that weren’t

A

filtered into the glomerulus

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38
Q

kidneys maintain homeostasis in 4 ways:

  1. excrete …. such as ….
  2. maintain …-… balance, which affects … and …
  3. maintain …-…, and thus, …, balance
  4. secrete …. (e.g. erythroprotein, which stimulates stem cells in bone marrow to produce more red blood cells)
A

metabolic wastes; urea; water-salt; blood volume; blood pressure; acid-base; pH; hormones

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39
Q

excretion of hypertonic urine is dependent on reabsorption of … from …. and ….

A

water; loop of Henle; collecting duct

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40
Q

during water reabsorption process, water passes through channels called …

A

aquaporins

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41
Q

Loop of Henle: penetrates deep into … and has … and …. loops

A

medulla; descending; ascending

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42
Q

in thin part of ascending loop, NaCl … diffuses out into …. But, the thick portion of this loop … transports salt out into the medulla

A

passively; interstitial fluid; actively

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43
Q

As fluid moves up thick portion of the ascending loop, ….salt is available for transport –> creates ….

A

less; osmotic gradient

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44
Q

gradient: concentration of salt is greater in direction of ….; because of this gradient, water leaves the ….

A

inner medulla; descending limb

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45
Q

countercurrent mechanism in loop of Henle: As water diffuses out of descending loop, the remaining fluid in the loop continually encounters a greater … in the medulla and continues to ….

A

solute concentration; leave the descending loop

46
Q

filtrate in collecting duct faces the same gradient, causing the urine in the collecting duct to become …. to ….

A

hypertonic; blood plasma

47
Q

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): released by posterior lobe of pituitary in response to …. in the blood

A

increased concentration

48
Q

ADH presence causes more water to be … and decreased amount of more … urine is produced; this can occur through the insertion of more … into epithelial cells of … and ….

A

reabsorbed; concentrated; aquaporins; distal tubule; collecting duct

49
Q

ADH is useful during

A

dehydration

50
Q

more than … of sodium ions is reabsorbed, …% reabsorbed at PCT, …% at ascending loop, and remaining at DCT & ….

A

99%; 67; 25; collecting duct

51
Q

salt reabsorption regulates … and …

A

blood volume; pressure

52
Q

when blood pressure is insufficient to promote …., a cluster of cells near glomerulus (juxtaglomerular apparatus) secretes …

A

filtration; renin

53
Q

renin: enzyme that converts angiotensinogen into angiotensinogen I, which is later converted to angiotensinogen II to release …

A

aldosterone

54
Q

aldosterone: hormone that promotes excretion of … and reabsorption of … at …. Reabsorption of … leads to reabsorption of …, thereby increasing … and ….

A

potassium ions; sodium ions; DCT; sodium ions; water; blood volume; blood pressure

55
Q

Atrial Natriuretic Hormone (ANH): hormone secreted when cardiac cells are stretched due to …. –> inhibits secretion of …. and promotes excretion of … (….), which consequently decreases …. and … by simultaneously excreting …

A

increased blood volume; renin; sodium ions; natriuresis; blood volume; pressure; water

56
Q

only kidneys can rid body of wide range of …/… substances: slower than buffer/breathing mechanism, but more powerful impact on pH

A

acidic; basic

57
Q

kidneys reabsorb … and excrete … to maintain normal … if blood is …. (if blood is basic, … is not excreted and …. is not reabsorbed)

A

bicarbonate; H+; blood pH; acidic; H+; bicarbonate

58
Q

urine is typically …. –> usually an excess of … is excreted (… and …. buffer these in the urine)

A

acidic; H+; ammonia; phosphate

59
Q

negative feedback: outcome … what is happening

e.g. in case of …. during …, there is negative feedback

A

reverses; ADH release; dehydration

60
Q

positive feedback: outcome … what’s already happening

61
Q

glomerulus: tuft of blood capillaries located within the …, a sac at the end of the nephron

A

bowman’s capsule

62
Q

(glomerulus) is is between arterioles which deliver the blood to the glomerulus. When blood enters, pressure moves small molecules (e.g. …., …, …, …, …, …, …, …, … & …, … - these end up going into urine) from the glomerulus into the lumen of the bowman’s capsule to achieve filtration

A

sodium; chloride; potassium; bicarbonate; water; glucose; amino acids; ammonia; toxins; drugs; urea;

63
Q

glomerulus maintains a constant rate of

A

filtration

64
Q

bowman’s capsule: … the filtrate. Consists of two layers of cells: one that closely covers the …, and another that is continuous with the inner layer

A

absorbs; glomerulus

65
Q

proximal convoluted tubule: this is where … of fluids from the nephron back to the … occurs, which therefore recovers much of the ….

A

tubular reabsorption; blood; glomerular filtrate

66
Q

the pct is lined by cells with many …. and ….

A

mitochondria and microvilli

67
Q

With carrier proteins and ion exchangers, solutes are reabsorbed in the pct. This is essential to ensure that an individual does not lose most of their

A

extracellular bodily fluids

68
Q

Things that are reabsorbed in PCT: active- …, …, …, ….
passive: … (….), …, …. (….)
both active and passive, respectively: …

A

hydrogen; urea; potassium; amino acids; glucose; facilitated diffusion; water; bicarbonate; facilitated diffusion; sodium & chlorine

69
Q

secretory product of PCT: …. –> counters … in interstitial fluid

A

ammonia; hydrogen reabsorption

70
Q

90% of bicarbonate reabsorbed because it acts as a … –> moved through …. transport using ….

A

buffer; passive; channels

71
Q

ions that are reabsorbed at pct get pushed into the …

72
Q

descending & ascending loops of henle: countercurrent multiplication here creates the osmotic gradient that ….

A

concentrates urine

73
Q

as a whole, the loop of henle recovers … and …. from the urine

A

water; salt

74
Q

countercurrent exchange in loop of henle increases

A

osmolarity

75
Q

Vasa recta carry blood in opposite directions, and absorb … on one hand and … on the other, thus enabling the countercurrent mechanism to be sustained

A

water; solute

76
Q

vasa recta: … in medulla –> interacts with …, mostly associated with …

A

capillaries; peritubular capillaries; thin part of loop of henle

77
Q

peritubular capillaries are more responsible for

A

bringing blood to kidney

78
Q

water moved out of the descending loop is carried away by the …, which then maintains the countercurrent multiplier

A

vasa recta

79
Q

sodium chloride int he ascending loop is permeable initially, therefore moving out …. but then active transport becomes necessary as changes in … occurs, which happens in the … region of the ascending tube

A

passively; interstitial fluid; thicker

80
Q

descending loop of henle: … reabsorbed ere, tons of …. to maximize water transport

A

water; aquaporins

81
Q

blood in vasa recta is travelling countercurrent to filtrate in descending loop, there is also countercurrent exchange between the

A

ascending and descending loops

82
Q

in ascending loop, … is reabsorbed (both active and passive)
countercurrent exchange takes place with the …, …., and with the ….

A

sodium chloride; descending loop; collecting tubules; vasa recta

83
Q

distal convoluted tubule: impermeable to …., reabsorbs …, … and … and then regulates the pH of urine by secreting … and absorbing ….

A

water; calcium; sodium; chloride; protons; bicarbonate

84
Q

DCT regulates …. and … homeostasis, permeable to many different …

A

extracellular fluid volume; electrolyte; solutes

85
Q 
DCT: bicarbonate reabsorption is ... because 90% was already reabsorbed
other reabsorbed things: 
passive- ..., ...
active- ... & ..., ...., ..., ... 
... is reabsorbed as well
A

active; glucose; water; sodium; chloride; amino acids; potassium; hydrogen; ammonia

86
Q

secretory product of DCT: … (…) again maintaining pH

A

hydrogen; active

87
Q

potassium reabsorption in DCT allows for proper reabsorption of

A

sodium chloride

88
Q

collecting duct: fluid leaving the DCT flows into these which collect …. It channels the urine into the … for drainage into …

A

urine; renal pelvis; ureters

89
Q

collecting duct also adjusts the …. of the urine by ….

A

salinity; reabsorbing water

90
Q

collecting duct leading into urine is where …. stops–> rest of the process from here on out is simply …

A

countercurrent exchange; transport

91
Q

reabsorption at collecting ducts:

passive: …, ….,
active: ….

A

urea; water; sodium chloride

92
Q

permeability of water at collecting ducts is under hormonal control –> ….

A

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

93
Q

ADH decreases … into urine

A

water output

94
Q

nephron: unit of … and … of the kidney

A

structure; function

95
Q

peritubular capillaries: (peri- around, tubular- tube) interacts with/surrounds: ….

A

convoluted tubules

96
Q

peritubular capillaries involved in countercurrent exchange:
- 2 tubes: … and …
going in opposite directions
- fluid; … and ….

A

nephron; capillaries; blood; filtrate

97
Q

glands on top of the kidney:

A

adrenal glands

98
Q

80 km of convoluted tubules suggests lots of

99
Q

epithelial wall in capillaries allows for … and indicates …

A

exchange; permeability

100
Q

reabsorption because absorption of materials into blood first done in

A

digestive system (all of these materials go into the kidney)

101
Q

what does the ADH actually regulate?

ADH regulates …. –> looking for concentration of …., …, and …

A

osmolarity; salt; glucose; urea

102
Q

How is osmolarity detected? And where is the detector located in the human body?
Detected by …, located in the …. (detects the amount of …. in the …. – controls how much … is secreted because it makes …)

A

osmoreceptors; hypothalamus; water; blood; ADH; ADH

103
Q

osmoreceptors bind to … (e.g. …, …, …)

A

ligand (a molecule that binds to other - larger, molecules); glucose; sodium; urea

104
Q

ADH goes to …, goes to …, and then interacts with …., changes …. of …. –> water is … and then goes back to ….

A

posterior pituitary gland; blood; collecting duct; gene expression; aquaporins; reabsorbed; peritubular capillaries

105
Q

what is normal range of osmolarity?

… mOsm/L –> anything above this is too …

106
Q

When would ADH be released? Describe red blood cell/ blood plasma.

  • At … mOsm/L –> suggests …, due to …
  • Red blood cell has … solute (…), blood plasma is …., thus causing water to move … of the cell and into the …
A

300; dehydration; breathing; less; hypotonic; hypertonic; out; blood plasma

107
Q

what would count as triggering the opposite (of ADH release)? Describe blood/cell?

  • Decrease in … –> … (….- needing to release more …)
  • Cells would be …, blood plasma would by … and cells could … (would cause ….)
A

blood osmolarity; overhydrated; diuresis; water; hypertonic; hypotonic; burst; death

108
Q

Things that could cause urine dilution (diuretics): …, …, … (due to large amounts of …), overconsumption of …

A

alcohol; caffeine; soda; sugar; water

109
Q

Hypo-osmotic: … mOsm/L

110
Q

increase rate of …, but no …. in diuresis situation

A

filtration; hormonal control

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