Rest of NJCTL Notes for Work and Energy Flashcards
the energy of life begins as …, created by …, traveling out of the sun at the speed of light
photons; nuclear fusion
electromagnetic radiation is composed of an oscillating wave of … and … fields which travel through space
magnetic; electric
The distance between the crests of the waves determines the …, and the number of crests per unit time determines the …
wavelength; frequency
wavelength =
speed of wave/frequency
the wavelength and frequency of the electromagnetic radiation in a photon determines the … in that photon
short wavelength = … frequency = … energy
long wavelength = … frequency = … energy
energy; high; high; low; low
when the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation is between … and … nm, it can be detected by the human eye and is called …
400; 700; visible light
visible light is only a small portion of the entire
light spectrum
light that we see is because the object is … some light waves while … others. White light contains …
absorbing; reflecting; all color wavelengths
pigments are substances that have the ability to … we perceive their color as the … that they are not able to absorb
absorb light; wavelengths
when electromagnetic radiation is absorbed, the energy contained in the photon is transferred to an … which allows it to become …
electron; excited
Excitation means that the electron moves from a … (…) to a …
low energy level; ground state; higher energy level
has to absorb energy … than color transmitted
higher
ATP is the currency of … in living systems. It stores the energy gained in … reactions to power … reactions at a later time and provides the … for the processes of life
energy; exergonic; endergonic; energy
ATP includes three … each of which has an ionic charge of …
phosphate groups; -3e
The phosphate groups in ATP … each other, since they each have a negative charge. Thus, it requires … to add the second phosphate group –> to go from … to …
To add the third group, to go from … to … requires even more since it is repelled by both of the other phosphate groups
repel; work; AMP; ADP; ADP; ATP
the energy from the work needed to bring each phosphate group to the molecule is stored in that … When it is broken to go from ATP to ADP, significant … is released. Going from ADP to AMP releases …, since there is … total … in ADP than ATP
phosphate bond; energy; less energy; less; charge
In living systems, the energy from the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis can be used to drive an … (…, …)
this is known as
endergonic reaction; anabolism; dehydration synthesis; coupling
ATP drives endergonic reactions by …, transferring a … to some other molecule, such as a reactant. The recipient molecule is now …
phosphorylation; phosphate group; phosphorylated
The three types of cellular work are powered by the hydrolysis of ATP: …., …, …
mechanical; transport; chemical
mechanical: …., differs from transport, as transport uses …
moving parts; membranes
ATP is a … resource that is regenerated by addition of a … to …
renewable; phosphate group; ADP
the energy to phosphorylate ADP comes from … in the cell. Each cell is converting millions of ATP to ADP and back again each second –> ATP is …
catabolic reactions; transient
photosystems are utilized for …, and are embedded in the membranes. They are therefore a type of … The membrane is required to establish the … for the synthesis of …
transport; transport protein; proton gradient; ATP
the first step in the process is when sunlight … in the pigment of the system
excites the electrons
electrons that reach sufficient energy levels are …from one part of the system to another
transferred
the … force is used to transfer … ions from the environment to the interior of the membrane. As time passes, a … is formed. This is known as …, the charge difference can be used to power a system
motive; H+; concentration gradient; membrane potential
In another location of the same membrane is a protein known as ATP synthesis, which takes advantage of the … produced and generates … –> … movement (…)
gradient; ATP; mechanical; turbine
Natural diffusion takes over and H+ travels back through the ATP synthase. The … of the H+ spins the ATP synthase and it acts as a turbine. ATP is produced … membrane, but there is a …, so it isn’t lost–> must be a way for prokaryotes to bring it back in–> wasting energy
motive force; outside; cell wall
the energy captured is used to …, a molecule that can be used to do work, power reactions, etc.
work
ATP is a good molecule for management of energy but cannot be used for … of energy because its reactivity makes it … quickly. So ATP producing organisms can only survive when … is available, or if they .. their environment with ATP
would remain … if sunlight is not available
storage; break down; sunlight; flood; dormant
(evolution) energy storage- .. is produced by cells taking advantage of … and .., which is a … source. this marks the beginning of … and … on Earth
glucose; ATP; CO2; carbon; sugar; carbs
person who developed endosymbiosis theory
Lynn Margulis
another support for endosymbiosis is method of reproduction:
binary fission
(evolution) compartmentalization- some cells begin to get … and more complex systems of … This produces isolated pockets that can house separate …. Thus, cells can do multiple … without cross …
infoldings; membranes; chemical reactions; reactions; interference
chloroplasts are a … organelle
photosynthetic
the chloroplast is a double-membraned structure that utilizes a concentration gradient and compartmentalization to maximize its production of the energy storage molecule …
… to store that molecule
glucose; storage vacuoles
CO2 fixation refers to CO2 as a … fixed into a …
gas; solid form
G3P is an … of the calvin cycle
intermediate product
an important feature of plants is their ability to grow toward sunlight. this is called …. it ensures that the plant will optimize the amount of sunlight it can gather
phototropism
phototropism works because the tip of the plant produces …, a hormone that controls the … of cell growth in plant cells. This hormone runs down the …
auxin; length; stem
when light is directly overhead, an equal amount of hormone travels down each side of the stem, making the cells grow … When the light is on one side of the plant, more hormone travels down the … side of the plant, making these cells grow … and the plant grow towards the light
transient –> … can change over time
evenly; dark; faster; leaning
auxin naturally migrates … from light, causing a … The further from the light, the more auxin and more auxin = more …
away; concentration gradient; elongation
(auxin) 1- the hormone binds to an auxin …
2- this signal is transduced into … within the cell
3- … are activated, and secretion of … loosens the wall, enabling the cell to …
affected genes are the ones that activate …
receptor; second messengers; proton pumps; acid; elongate; H+ pumps
(auxin) 4- the golgi apparatus is stimulated to discharge vesicles containing materials to maintain the … of the cell wall
thickness
(auxin) 5- the signal-transduction pathway also activates DNA-binding proteins that induce transcription of specific …
6- this leads to the production of proteins required for sustaining the … of the cell –> to maintain … growth pattern
genes; growth; upward
(auxin) apical dominance results from the release of auxin by the … which inhibits the growth from the …
To make a plant bushier, you remove the … bud, which then allows for growth from the … buds. This is because the bud is removed, which means the hormone suppressing the growth is also removed. This is also why … makes fruit trees produce more fruit
terminal bud; lateral buds; terminal; lateral; pruning
gibberellin:
like auxin it promotes …, and it acts as a chemical messenger to stimulate the synthesis of …, which use water to break down …
cell elongation; hydrolytic enzymes; polymers
gibberellin:
hydrolytic enzymes are important in the … of … to ensure the release of …
germination; seedlings; nutrients
gibberellin:
those nutrients feed the seedling’s early … this chemical hormone is sometimes used by the farming industry to promote growth.
germination: when they start to produce … and …
when a plant starts growing, it gets sugar from the … and doesn’t …
development; shoots; roots; seed; photosynthesize
cytokinins: stimulate .., which allows for …, and … in plants; usually coupled with auxin
cell division; growth; differentiation
cytokinins slow the process in which … breaks down and various molecules and minerals are removed from … before they fall.
protein synthesis stops when leaves are picked, but if they are treated with cytokinin, they remain …, … continues, and … do not break down
chlorophyll; leaves; green; protein synthesis; carbs
loss of leaves:
abscission
chemisynthesis became
photosynthesis
Just as ATP cannot be used for storing energy, glucose is not usable as … Glucose must be converted back into … before it can be used to do work. Energy is stored in …
energy; ATP; glucose bonds
building glucose is an … process that builds single carbon atoms into a 6-C molecule by building chemical bonds using …
The breakdown is exactly the opposite, or … A six carbon molecule is broken into individual carbon atoms and energy is … from broken chemical bonds
net gain of … ATP
anabolic; catabolic; released; 18
the earliest form of glucose breakdown is a catabolic reaction known as … –> stage 1
takes place in … of cells
glycolysis; cytoplasm
glycolysis forms 2 …, or … with H
pyruvates; pyruvic acid
glycolysis requires an … molecule known as …. These types of molecules pull … from other molecules. Once it takes on the electrons from glucose it becomes …
oxidative; NAD+; electrons; NADH
NAD+: … molecule
electron carrier
glycolysis releases … that can be used to phosphorylate … into … In total, only … are released from a glucose molecule. Not very efficient when you consider it took … ATP and many … to make the glucose molecule
energy; ADP; ATP; 2 ATP; 18; electrons
another problem with glycolysis, is that you will eventually use up the … because all the local molecules are being converted to …, slowing the process
NAD+; NADH
evolution’s answer to this problem was a process capable of regenerating NAD+, called …
This process does not produce …
fermentation; energy
fermentation breaks down the products of glycolysis so that glycolysis can be repeated with another glucose molecule. These two processes, glycolysis and fermentation, are …, requiring no …
anaerobic; oxygen
in glycolysis, 1 glucose molecule had yielded …, …, and …. That is the input to the … stage of anaerobic respiration
2 ATPs; 2 pyruvates; 2 NADHs; fermentation
the pyruvates and NADHs are fermented into … and either …. or …..
2NAD+; lactic acid; CO2 & Ethanol
lactic acid is a … carbon molecule and is a …
lactic acid fermentation occurs in …
3; waste product; muscle cells
ethanol is a .. carbon molecule
2
the overall result of anaerobic respiration:
the input is … + …. molecules
the output is … molecules (for a net gain of …)
In addition,
lactic acid fermentation results in ….
ethanol fermentation results in … and …
1 glucose; 2 ATP; 4 ATP; 2 ATPs; lactic acid; ethanol; CO2
as life began to use photosynthesis as the primary means of capturing light energy, the by-product … began to build up on planet Earth. Over billions of years, the early atmosphere was transformed into an …-rich environment. This phenomenon made the next step in the evolution of glucose breakdown possible
shift from … to …
oxygen; chemiosmosis; photosynthesis
oxygen is highly …, which means it attracts … and pulls them from other molecules. this is an … process.
electronegative; electrons; oxidative
when oxygen takes on new electrons it is …, this refers to its drop in charge
reduced
Redox notes that one molecule must be … in order to … another. It is essentially the … of an ….
reduced; oxidize; transfer; electron
substance that is oxidized is the … agent.
substance that is reduced is the … agent
reducing; oxidizing
in photosynthesis, … is reduced into … and … is oxidized into
CO2; glucose; water; oxygen gas
… is the reducing agent in photosynthesis because it donates an electron, whereas …. is the oxidizing agent because it accepts an electron
h2o; co2
(aerobic cellular respiration) equation:
glucose + 6O2 –> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
(aerobic cellular respiration) energy in cell. resp. equation is in 2 forms:
… for use in … reactions and … released as …
36 ATP; coupled; heat; energy
(aerobic cellular respiration) stages of aerobic cell. resp:
1- …: the splitting of … into …. molecules in the … of a cell
2- ….
3- the … (…)- the stripping of … from the pieces of the … molecule in the ….
4- …- using the electrons to set up a … and energize the formation of … in the …
glycolysis; glucose; 2 pyruvic acid (pyruvate); cytoplasm; pyruvate decarboxylation; citric acid cycle; Krebs cycle; electrons; glucose; mitochondria; oxidative phosphorylation; concentration gradient; ATP; mitochondria
(aerobic cellular respiration) internal membrane of mitochondria: …
internal cytoplasm of mitochondria: …
space between internal membrane and outer membrane: …
cristae; matrix; intermembrane space
(aerobic cellular respiration) net number of molecules present after glycolysis of 1 glucose molecule: … ATP, … CO2, … NADH
2; 0; 2
(aerobic cellular respiration) granules in mitochondria are like …, and they … stuff
vacuoles; store
(aerobic cellular respiration) mitochondria specialized in the breakdown of glucose into ATP, or cellular respiration. they represent the state of the art in glucose breakdown in biological machinery. They are extremely efficient, producing about … per glucose molecule by using the … power of …
36 ATPs; oxidizing; oxygen
(aerobic cellular respiration) pyruvate will be broken down further in the citric acid cycle. First, the two pyruvate molecules must enter the … In the process of transport, a … is stripped from each of the pyruvate molecules and leaves the system as ….
…. is combined with the remainder of the pyruvate molecules
mitochondria; carbon atom; carbon dioxide; Co-Enzyme A
(aerobic cellular respiration) the modified pyruvate molecules change into a molecule called …., and … more molecules of … are produced. this process is known as .., and it occurs with the help of …
acetyl CoA; 2; NADH; decarboxylation; pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
(aerobic cellular respiration) … is required in pyruvate decarboxylation
acetyl means it has …
atp; 2 carbons
how many of each of the following molecules are produced from glycolysis and the uptake of pyruvate into the mitochondria per glucose?
… ATP, … CO2, … NADH
2; 2; 4
the citric acid cycle, sometimes called the krebs cycle, takes place within the …. It is the cycle that finishes the complete … (or ….) of the glucose molecule. It is a … pathway made up of … steps and produces …, …, …, and another electron transport molecule called …
mitochondrial matrix; breakdown; decarboxylation; metabolic; 8; CO2; ATP; NADH; FADH2
(aerobic cellular respiration) 1 cycle of the citric acid cycle processes ….
to account for one glucose molecule, … cycles are needed
one Acetyl CO-A molecule; 2
(aerobic cellular respiration) in one turn of the citric acid cycle, the following are produced:
… ATP, … NADH, … FADH2, … CO2
1; 3; 1; 2
(aerobic cellular respiration) how many f each of the following molecules in total are produced from the process of glycolysis, pyruvate decarboxylase process, and the citric acid cycle per glucose molecule?
… atp, .. co2, … nadh, … fadh2
4; 6; 10; 2
nadh and fadh2 are used to make the bulk of the atp produced by aerobic cellular respiration in the last step. they have been harvesting …, reduced, as the glucose molecule has broken down through the previous processes. they will now shuttle those off to be used in … where they will offload them, becoming …
electrons; oxidative phosphorylation; oxidized
NADH is the reduced version of … It carries enough energy to produce …
FADH2 is the reduced version of … It carries enough energy to produce …
… has more energy possibility than ….
NAD+; 3 ATP molecules; FAD; 2 ATP; NADH; FADH2
(aerobic cellular respiration) oxidative phosphorylation is the final process of aerobic cellular respiration. the energy from the electrons harvested from the previous steps is used to set up a … across the … of the mitochondria. then this is used to power the production of …
proton gradient; inner membrane; 32 ATP molecules
(aerobic cellular respiration) in oxidative phosphorylation, … is pumped into …. then go through …
H+; intermembrane space; ATP synthase
(aerobic cellular respiration) oxidative phosphorylation takes place in 2 steps:
- … - uses the energy in the electrons to … transport …
- …- … pass through a passive transport molecule that is also an enzyme called … with their gradient
electron transport chain; actively; protons against their gradient; chemiosmosis; protons; atp synthase
how many of each of the following molecules are present after the complete breakdown of a glucose in aerobic respiration?
… ATP, … CO2, … NADH, … FADH2
36; 6; 0; 0
unlike plants, which undergo cellular respiration utilizing the products of their own chloroplasts, animals must obtain oxygen and glucose from their …
environment
the function of the respiratory system is to exchange … and … in an organism for the purpose of maintaining …
oxygen; carbon dioxide; cellular respiration
the part of an animal where gases are exchanged with the environment is called the … (e.g. gills, lungs)
respiratory surface
respiratory surfaces must be … in order to function properly because gases are … before diffusing across these surfaces
moist; dissolved in water
some animals, such as earthworms, use their entire … as a respiratory organ
outer skin
other animals have body parts that are adapted for respiration because their skin surfaces are not … enough to provide … for the entire body. Examples of these include gills in fish, and lungs in mammals
extensive; gas exchange
lungs are made of tiny sacs called … These are filled with … and … that drop off … and retrieve … to disperse through the organism. In mammals, the rate at which lungs exchange gases with the environment is controlled primarily by …
alveoli; arteries; veins; carbon dioxide; oxygen; pH
lungs must produce …, … fluid, otherwise sacs will … and the lungs will …
viscous; mucousy; attach; collapse
…. allows baby to breathe air and initiates contractions
surfactant
as CO2 builds in the blood, the blood becomes more ….. The brain responds to this stimuli by quickening … to … this gas
acidic; alveoli contractions; expel
alveoli are … and usually …
thin; empty
hemoglobin changes … based on acidity
affinity
in animals with multiple cell layers, a … is necessary to absorb the … and … from the respiratory and digestive systems, and deliver these reactants to cells throughout the body. In exchange, waste molecules, such as …, are picked up and carried away from the cells for …
circulatory system; oxygen; glucose; CO2; excretion
3 components to a circulatory system:
- a set of …. (…)
- a … to fill the … (… or ….)
- a … to move the … throughout the body (…)
interconnecting tubes; vessels; fluid; tubes; blood; hemolymph; pump; fluid; heart
hemolymph: … + …
blood; interstitial fluid
2 types of circulatory systems: … systems and … systems
open; closed
open circulatory systems are found in …. (such as … or …) and most … (such as a … or …)
arthropods; grasshopper; lobster; mollusks; clam; oyster
the heart in open systems pumps the circulatory fluid, called …, directly into the … between the …. There is no distinction between … fluid and … fluid
hemolymph; spaces; organs; circulatory; interstitial
Relaxation of the heart draws the hemolymph back through … for …
pores; waste excretion
in a closed circulatory system, blood is confined to … and is distinct from the … These systems are more efficient at transporting circulatory fluids to … and ….
vessels; interstitial fluid; tissues; cells
there are three types of vessels in a closed circulatory system: …, …, and …
arteries; veins; capillaries
in a closed circulatory system, you can control where … rich blood and … rich blood are located
nutrient; waste
arteries: carry blood … the heart to other .. and … of the body
away from; organs; tissues
veins: … blood to the ..
return; heart
capillaries: microscopic blood … that infiltrate each … in the body and diffuse … to the cells; these are important for …
vessels; tissue; nutrients; exchange
blood consists of several kinds of cells and cell products suspended in a liquid matrix called …. The cellular elements make up about …% of the total volume of blood
plasma; 45
there are two types of cells suspended in blood plasma:
… (.. blood cells) which transport … and … (… blood cells) which function in …/…
erythrocytes; red; oxygen; leukocytes; white; defense; immunity
a third cellular element, …., are not really true cells but are actually … of … cells. They are involved in the normal … of blood
platelets; fragments; larger; clotting process
the heart is a muscle for pumping … through the vessels
circulatory fluid
invertebrates, both those with open and closed systems, typically have on or more … moving fluid. … also assists the flow of fluid through the system
tubular hearts; body movement
vertebrates have … and … in their heart depending on their …
two; four; class
the increase in chamber number is advantageous for separating … and … blood in the system
oxygenated; deoxygenated
fish have a …-chambered heart consisting of … and …
2; one ventricle; one atrium
in fish, blood moves from the … into the … where it is pumped to the … for … Thus, oxygenated blood moves through the body with very ….
atrium; ventricle; gills; oxygenation; low pressure
since blood is of lower pressure in fish, they must use … to breathe, and … assists the movement of fluid through the system
muscular contractions; swimming
heart pumps … blood
deoxygenated
amphibians have …-chambered hearts: … and ….
3; two atria; one ventricle
(amphibians) This creates a … circulation, blood leaving the … moves through the lungs before returning to the … to be pumped to the …
double loop; ventricle; heart; body
adding a chamber leads to higher … which allows for …
blood pressure; life on earth
with a 2-chambered heart, though, blood isn’t fully
unmixed
reptiles have a …-chambered heart, similar to … except the ventricle is …. Crocodilians have a completely …
3; amphibians; partially divided; divided ventricle
Mammals and birds have a …-chambered hearts (… and ….).
4; two atria; two ventricles
(Mammals) blood from the body enters the … of the heart where it is pumped through the … to the … Blood returns to the … and … to be pumped to the body systems
right atrium; right ventricle; lung; left ventricle; left atrium
living systems require …. and … to maintain order, grow and reproduce
free energy; matter
… capture free energy through photosynthesis; cellular respiration and fermentation harvest free energy from … to produce …, including … The free energy available in … drives … in cells.
Photosynthesis and respiration are … processes
autotrophic cells; sugars; free energy carriers; ATP; sugars; metabolic pathways; interdependent
gathering or managing energy is the first consideration for any species because without efficient … all other metabolic processes will …For this reason most specializations of biological systems are the result of … to gather energy
bioenergetics; fail; adaptations
all organisms must maximize efficiency in the getting and using of food for energy. However, each species achieves this with a different…
energy strategy
There are 2 factors that contribute to the bioenergetics of any species:
… - which variations became available to the species
…- which adaptations were effective in the …
adaptations; environment; environment
one of the major differences between animals is the overall strategy of being …, …, or …, …
endothermic; warm blooded; ectothermic; cold blooded
(ectotherms) ectotherms are “…” animals. most animals fit into this category. most of their heat energy escapes into the … so their body temperature is close to that of their …
cold-blooded; environment; surroundings
(ectotherms) activity of these animals is drastically affected by … in their environment
temperature changes
(ectotherms) when outside temperatures rise, they become … active. When external temperatures drop, they become more … in their activity
more; sluggish
(ectotherms) When an animal is cold the chemcial reactions that drive metabolic pathways … considerably. This means when they are cold they cannot move … Cold blood animals must rely on environmental factors to supply … or have a … period before they can move at a faster speed. When they are cold they are more … to … because they cannot … quickly to get away
slow down; quickly; heat; warm up period; vulnerable; predators; react
(ectotherms) since these animals do not have to maintain a high body temperature they can minimize the amount of … necessary for … and … This means they require less … and can expend even less … because they minimize the need to … for …
cellular respiration; generating heat; staying alive; food; energy; hunt; food
(endotherms) endotherms are the “…” animals, such as mammals and birds. These animals have evolved homeostatic mechanisms that allow them to use the heat they generate. They have adaptations such as …, …, …, and … that help prevent … They maintain constant … that are higher than their environment.
warm blooded; fur; hair; feathers; fat; heat loss; body temperatures
(endotherms) warm blooded animals burn far more … than ectotherms of the same … This means they must … and constantly find new … to stay alive
calories; mass; hunt; food sources
(endotherms) warm blooded animals never need to … at a moment’s notice they can be at … which means they are prepared to … or … from predators all the time
warm up; maximum metabolism; hunt; run
(endotherms) the uniform temperatures of the seas suggest that endothermy did not evolve until … was invaded by the early … ancestors of birds and mammals
dry land; reptilian
(endotherms) the major source of heat for endotherms is the large … covering their entire body
muscle mass
(endotherms) muscle contracts may account for more than …% of the total heat produced. … is a bodily function in response to early hypothermia in warm-blooded animals
80; shivering
(endotherms) when the core body temperature drops, the … is triggered to maintain homeostasis. Muscle groups around the vital organs begin to … in small … in an attempt to create … by expending energy
shivering reflex; shake; movements; warmth
(endotherms) on a specific basis (per gram of body weight) … animals produce more heat than … This … relationship between body size and metabolic rate is universal and is demonstrated by both endotherms and ectotherms
smaller; larger; inverse
