test 2 Flashcards
1
Q
what are tissues
A
are many cells ( and extracellular space) with similar structure and function working together
2
Q
four main types of tissue
A
epithelial
connective
nervous
muscular
3
Q
what is the main function of epithelial tissue
A
to cover almost all organs
4
Q
why does epithelial tissue take on different forms
A
because different organs have different needs. different forms allow it to take on different functions
5
Q
epithelial tissue has cells that are
A
packed closely together
6
Q
what is an important thing that epithelial tissue shows
A
a polarity
7
Q
what is a polarity for epithelial tissue
A
it always has an outer or top side called the apical side a lower or bottom side called the basal side
8
Q
what is the basement membrane
A
where the epithelial tissue ends and the next layer of tissue begins
9
Q
what are the three main shapes of epithelium
A
squamous, cuboidal, columnar
10
Q
what are squamous epithelium
A
epithelium is short
11
Q
what are cuboidal epithelium
A
epithelium is cubeshaped
12
Q
what is columnar epithelium
A
epithelium is column shaped
13
Q
what are the other ways epithelium can be sorted
A
simple, stratified, pseudostratified
14
Q
what does simple epithelium look like
A
has just one layer of cells
15
Q
what does stratified epithelium look like
A
has multiple layers of cells
16
Q
what does pseudostratified epithelium look like
A
looks stratified , but isn’t
17
Q
what should always look at to categorize squamous, cuboidal, etc
A
the most apical layer
18
Q
2 other ways you can define epithelium
A
ciliated, glandular
19
Q
what is ciliated epithelium
A
has cilia
20
Q
what is cilia
A
hairlike or fingerlike projections that push things along the apical surface
21
Q
what is glandular epithelium
A
epithelium that secretes some kind of fluid
22
Q
two types of glandular epithelium
A
- exocrine epithelium
- endocrine epithelium
23
Q
what is exocrine epithelium
A
secretes things towards outside of organ or duct, often has ducts
24
Q
what is endocrine epithelium
A
secretes things into blood stream, has no ducts
25
what can exocrine glands do
can from glands and secrete their product into the duct or on top of the organ
26
what can endocrine glands do
secrete the product directly in to the bloodstream, their products are almost always hormones
27
what is simple squamous epithelium
epithelium in a single layer of flat cells, cells are typically present along the edges of organs that need specific things allowed in or out (diffusion)
28
where is simple squamous epithelium often found
the blood vessels and alveoli ( air sacs in the lungs)
29
what is simple cuboidal epithelium
a single layer of cube shaped cells with round nuclei in the center
30
what does the shape of simple cuboidal epithelium allow them to do
absorb and/or secrete things
31
where are simple cuboidal epithelial cells often found
in the glands and kidneys
32
what is simple columnar epithelium
a single layer of column-shaped cells with round nuclei in the center, with more space than cuboidal epithelium
33
why does simple columnar epithelium have more space than cuboidal epithelium
to absorb and secrete things
34
where is simple columnar epithelium found and why
in the digestive tract and the uterus, because thats where much absorption happens
35
what is stratified squamous epithelium
a much thicker layer of cells that ares till flat on the apical side, although at base they may be a different shape
36
what is the main function of stratified squamous cells
to protect against abraision
37
where are stratified squamous epithelium found a lot
areas where abrasion happens a lot, the esophagus and vagina
38
what also has stratified squamous epithelium too
the skin, but the apical layers are heavily wrapped in the structural protein keratin
39
what is the function of pseudostratified epithelium
debris removal
40
what does the shape of pseudostratified epithelium help with
helps it secrete fluids like mucus well and typically has cilia
41
pseudostratified epithelium lines the majority of what
the respiratory tract
42
describe pseudostratified epithelium
exocrine secreting primarily mucus and ciliated
43
what does a transverse section the trachea show
the ciliated epithelium and its exocrine duct where mucus is secreted
44
***why does smoking cause cancer ?
- smoking has been shown to damage cilia on respiratory epithelium.
- cilia usually push bacteria and carcinogens upwards, away from lungs and towards the mouth where they can be coughed out.
- with fewer working cilia, smokers are at a much higher risk for lung infections and cancer
45
what is transitional epithelium
looks similar to stratified epithelium, but the top layer of cells can change dramatically, sometimes they are almost squamous, but other times they are very large and dome-like
46
wha does transitional epithelium do
lines organs that need to stretch, most importantly the bladder and stretch with it
47
what is connective tissue
a glue that holds the body together
48
what are the two components of connective tissue
cells and matrix
49
what is matrix in connective tissue
all of the structural proteins between cells
| the ground substance which is the gel that fills the rest of the space
50
what are the types of connective tissue
```
areolar
adipose
cartilage
bone
dense
```
51
what is areolar connective tissue
the most common type of connective tissue and the most boring.
52
where is areolar connective tissue found
found beneath the basement membrane of the epithelium
53
what is areolar connective tissue defined by
- fibrous proteins that are mostly collagen running in random directions
- lots of empty space filled in the liquid
- cells called fibroblasts, plus white blood cells
54
how do fibrous proteins get in the extracellular space
they're made by cells than secreted
55
what is adipose connective tissue
the body's storage for fat
56
what is the primary cell type for adipose tissue
adipocyte
57
describe adipocytes
they have very little room for matrix because adipocytes take up almost all the space, the nucleus of adipocytes is smoothed up against the membrane of the cell
58
average human has how many adipocytes
around 30 billion that store about 30 pounds of fat
59
when do adipocytes divide and when do they stay the same
they will divide in childhood and adolescence, but stay the same in adulthood , unless extreme weight gain
60
do the number adipocytes decrease in adulthood
no except for liposuction
61
what is another type of cartilaginous connective tissue
hyaline cartilage
62
where is hyaline cartilage found
the ends of most bones to serve as a cushion, on some of the ribs, and in the larynx, pharynx, and trachea
63
what were your bones originally composed of
hyaline cartilage
64
what is the one cell type of hyaline cartilage
chondrocytes
65
where are chondrocytes found
hollowed out areas called lacunae
66
what is the sole purpose of hyaline cartilage
to crank out collagen that makes up the vast majority of the matrix
67
what is another important fact about hyaline cartilage
it is avascular, so wounds here take a long time to heal
68
what type of tissue is bone considered
connective tissue
69
what is the matrix of bone
mostly collagen, but big difference is that calcium is embedded in the matrix as well
70
what does bone have
Haversian canals
71
what do Haversian canals do
make way fro blood vessels
72
what surrounds the Haversian canals
the most common bone cells called osteocytes
73
where is dense connective tissue found
in tendons and ligaments
74
what does dense connective tissue need to be
firm but stretchy
75
dense connective tissue contains primarily what
fibroblasts as its cell type and collagen as its main fiber
76
how is the collagen in dense connective tissue
parallel to let it better stretch
77
what are the three types of muscular tissue
skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
78
describe skeletal muscle
the only kind of muscle that you can control, it connects to your bones, it is striated
79
describe smooth muscle
is controlled by your nervous system unconsciously, not striated
80
describe cardiac muscle
is self controlled, but can be sped up or down by the unconscious part of your nervous system. it is striated
81
what does it mean to be striated
vertical stripes
82
skeletal muscle muscle cells run how?
in the same direction
83
how many nuclei do skeletal cells have
are multinucleate
84
how do smooth muscle cells run
in many directions, can't see any definitions
85
how many nucleus do smooth muscle cells have
1
86
how do cardiac muscle cells run
in kind of the same direction, looks like zebra stripes
87
how many nuclei do cardiac cells have
1 to 2 per cell
88
what type of tissue is nervous tissue
connective
89
how are nerves often bundled together
in structures called ganglia
90
what the main cells of nervous tissue
neurons which are long and skinny
91
what do you see in cross sections of nervous tissue
some cell bodies but also many tails
92
what happens in the digestive system
food travels through the tube that is your digestive system
93
brief process of digestive system
chewed in the mouth, then travels through the esophagus to stomach, from there remains are tossed into the small intestine, the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas all add some contents here
94
where does stuff get primarily broken down
the stomach and upper small intestine
95
where does almost all absorption happen
the small intestine
96
where is the remaining water sucked down in digestive system
the large intestine
97
where is the rest of the remainder excreted
the anus
98
what are the two types of metabolism in the body
anabolism, and canabolism
99
what is anabolism
building big molecules from small ones
100
what is catabolism
breaking big molecules into small ones
101
when do we take in most of nutrients
when we eat foods
102
what do we do from food's molecules
we catabolize them
103
where is energy stored
in the bonds between atoms
104
what happens when we break the bonds between atoms
we release energy that can be recaptured
105
foods contain molecules that fall into what 4 main groups
proteins
crabs
fats
nucleic acids
106
what are proteins
long strains of amino acids stuck together by peptide bonds
107
insects, animals, and plants almost all use the same how many amino acids
20
108
how can humans cheat with amino acids
we can cheat by using amino acids of of other insects, animals and plants to construct our proteins
109
where is pepsin found
the stomach
110
what does pepsin do
breaks apart proteins into smaller peptide chains
111
what pH does pepsin work best
2
112
the acidic conditions of the protein cause almost all eaten proteins to what
denature
113
where are trypsin and chymotrypsin made
the pancreas
114
where are trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted to
small intestine
115
what do trypsin and chymotrypsin do
break down peptide chains into individual amino acids
116
what happens after proteins have been cut into amino acids
the pieces are now small enough to be absorbed by the small intestine and pass into the bloodstream
117
where do amino acids travel to from the bloodstream
all cells in the body to be used to build new proteins or other things
118
what describes cells with keeping amino acids inside
they are very greedy
119
what do cells do with their own and absorbed proteins
recycle them using the proteasome and the lysosome
120
how do cells pull free amino acids
out of the bloodstream against a concentration gradient and using energy to do this
121
can the body break apart amino acids to produce ATP
yes
122
what is the body's third choice for making energy
proteins
123
what happens when proteins are broken down for energy
the N group is broken off and turned into ammonia, which is toxic, in the liver ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to make urea which is released in urine
124
what are lipids
fats, that are non polar
125
what are two main places lipids can be found
the phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol
126
what can lipids be converted into
steroids
127
what can lipids be broken down into
energy
128
what is the body's second choice for energy
lipids
129
what are lipids when they are eaten
they are too big to be absorbed by cells in the stomach or small intestine, so they form globs and sit in the small intestine
130
where are bile salts made
the pancreas
131
where are bile salts stored
the gallbladder
132
what is the function of bile salts
to be released and make the globs of lipids smaller
133
what do smaller globs of lipids mean
more surface area for pancreatic lipase
134
what does more surface area mean
more enzyme activity
135
once digested, lipids can be broken down to form what
ATP
136
lipids breakdown for ATP is more efficient than what
amino acids
137
what are the byproducts on lipids breakdown
acetoacetic acid, acetone
138
what can acetone do
diffuse through lungs and into breath, gives it a fruity odor. this process is called ketoacidosis
139
what are the two forms carbohydrates are consumed in
starches and sugars
140
what are starches
long chains of sugars stuck together, they don't taste sweet
141
what are sugars
monosaccharides or disaccharides that taste sweet
142
what is the primary molecule formed from carbohydrate breakdown
glucose
143
what is sugars main purpose
being used to make energy
144
what is the body's first choice for making energy
carbohydrate breakdown
145
starches are first broken apart by what in the digestive system
salivary amylase in the mouth
146
what is the second breakdown of carbohydrates in the digestive system
they can be broken down by pancreatic amylase, which gets secreted into the small intestine. The remaining pieces are absorbed as sugar in the blood
147
when in the bloodstream, sugar enters cells throough the help of what
insulin
148
once in cells, glucose does what to make ATP
cellular respiration
149
what is the most important metabolic pathway for cells
cellular respiration
150
what is the chemical equation for cellular respiration
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 = 6 CO2 + 6H2O and about 38 ATP
151
what is hyperglycemia
too much glucose in the blood
152
***what does the body do when there is too much glucose in the blood
the pancreas releases insulin, cells in the body pull this glucose out, some extra glucose is stored in the liver in chains called glycogen, other glucose is converted to and stored as fat in adipose tissue
153
what is hypoglycemia
when there is not enough glucose in the blood
154
*** what does the body do when there is not enough glucose in the blood
the pancreas releases glucagon, liver cells receive glucagon signals, then they break glycogen apart, releasing more sugar into the blood
155
whats the end goal for food break down
ATP
156
what is the extracellular space
the space between cells
157
what does the extracellular space contain
extracellular fluid
| extracellular matrix
158
what is the extracellular fluid
mostly water (saline)
159
what is the extracellular matrix
solid or gel like materials (lots of collagen) that holds the body together
160
are some areas of the body very dense with cells
yes
161
what do the areas with very few cells have a lot of instead
matrix
162
what is a prokaryote
a single-celled organism with lack of nucleus and membrane-borne organelles
163
what is a eukaryote
single celled or multi celled organism, contains nucleus and organelles
164
what are the only cells in the human body that aren't eukaryotic
red blood cells
165
how many specialized types of cells in the human body
290
166
all specialized cells are derived from what one cell
the zygote
167
what is the zygote
formed when a mother's egg meets a father's sperm
168
what is cell differentiation
a cell growing up and deciding what it wants to be
169
how can cell differentiation be represented
many branches of a tree coming from one trunk
170
the steps of cell differentiation are often
irreversible
171
what are stem cells
cells that go under self-renewal
172
what is self renewal for stem cells
they divide into two cells, and one goes on to grow up, while the other remains a stem cell
173
what are the two types of stem cells
totipotent stem cells and pluripotent stem cells
174
what are totipotent stem cells
can grow up to become anything
175
what are pluripotent stem cells
can grow up to become several things, but not all things, there are many pluripotent stem cells in a full grown body
176
what are progenitor cells
they are no longer stem cells because they do not self-renew, although some still divide. they can still become many different things when they grow up
177
what are differentiated cells
cells that are all grown up
178
what is the nucleus home to
the DNA
179
does the dna ever leave the nucleus
no
180
where are ribosomes made
the nucleus
181
what part of the nucleus are ribosomes made
the nucleoli
182
what envelope does the nucleus have
a nuclear envelope
183
what does the nuclear envelope do
it is a membrane that separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell
184
what is the plasma membrane
a "bag" around the cell
185
what is the cell membrane made of
a phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads on the outside and hydrophobic tails on the inside
186
what does the hydrophobic tails on the inside do
stops water-soluble particles from entering
187
what must the membrane fluidity remain
relatively constant despite changing conditions
188
what are the three things that increase membrane fluidity
1. temperature
2. cholesterol
3. unsaturated/saturated fatty acids
189
how does low temperature influence membrane fluidity
it makes the fluidity lower and the phospholipids closer together
190
how does high temperature influence membrane fluidity
it makes fluidity increase and the phospholipids further apart
191
what is crystalized state
the cell membrane at a very low temperature
192
how does cholesterol affect membrane fluidity at low temperatures
it can insert itself between phospholipids and increase the distance between them, and increase fluidity
193
how does cholesterol affect membrane fluidity at high temperatures
it inserts itself between phospholipids and causes the lipids to be closer together and decreases membrane fluidity
194
cholesterol is like a ___ for membrane fluidity
buffer
195
what is the difference between the bonds of unsaturated and saturated fatty acids in phospholipids
the unsaturated look different and have double bonds
196
what type of fatty acids stack better
the saturated fatty acids
197
how do having saturated fatty acids affect membrane fluidity
it lowers fluidity
198
how do having unsaturated fatty acids affect membrane fluidity
it increases fluidity
199
what are the four main types of membrane proteins
transport proteins, receptor proteins, adhesion proteins, glycoproteins
200
what do transport proteins do
- they move things in or out of cells
- they can usually be opened or closed
- they are extremely selective
201
what do receptor proteins do
help the inside and outside of the cell communicate
202
which types of membrane proteins work together
transport and receptor proteins
203
what do adhesion proteins do
like integrins, they help cells stick in place, some grab onto collagen in extracellular space, others grab onto other integrins on other cells and "hold hands"
204
what do glycoproteins do
stick carbon chains into the extracellular space, forming a glycocalyx
205
what does the cytoplasm do
fills space inside the membrane and outside of the nucleus
206
what are the three main parts of the cytoplasm
the cytosol, the organelles, inclusions
207
what is the cytosol
jelly-like fluid that fills space
208
what are the organelles
machinery of the cell that floats in cytosol
209
what are the inclusions
other pieces like fat droplets, proteins, pigments
210
what are the mitochondria
the powerhouseS of the cell
211
what happens in the mitochondria
glucose is broken down by enzymes, turned into ATP
212
do mitochondria numbers vary widely by cell type
yes
213
which cells have more mitochondira
cells that need more energy
214
what are ribosomes
site of protein synthesis
215
what are ribosomes made of
protein and RNA
216
where are ribosomes NOT found
in the nucleus
217
where are ribosomes found
- floating in cytosol
| - attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
218
what is the endoplasmic reticulum
the circulatory system of the cell, a series of channels that can transport things
219
what are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum
smooth ER and rough ER
220
describe the smooth ER
no ribosomes, involved in breaking down chemicals
221
where is the smooth ER commonly found
the liver
222
describe the rough ER
has ribosomes, proteins are made here and can be transported around or out of the cell
223
where is rough ER common
in cells that make proteins to be sent out of cells
224
what is an example of cells that have lots of rough ER
cells in islets of Langerhans in pancreas have much rough ER, because they make insulin which is secreted there
225
what is the Golgi apparatus
the post office of the cell, whose primary purpose is to mark proteins with directions of where to go
226
what do proteins with similar directions do
form into pods and pinch off in secretory vesicles
227
what do secretory vesicles do
- some vessels exit the cell through process called exocytosis
- others may go to membrane or lysosome
228
what are lysosomes
break down bodies that are sacs of enzymes that break almost anything down
229
what are the four types of enzymes in lysosomes
proteases, nucleases, lipases, amylases
230
what do proteases do
break down proteins
231
what do nucleases do
break apart nucleotides
232
what do lipases do
break apart lipids
233
what do amylases do
break down sugar/starch
234
how to calculate magnification
the eyepiece (10x) times the objective lense 4x, 10x, 40x
235
which knob can you turn
the fine adjustment knob
236
which knob can't you turn
the coarse adjustment knob
237
how many total different lysosomal enzymes are there
50
238
mechanism of LSDs
the enzyme of the lysosome doesn't work, so there is a buildup of things in the cell, cell dies, buildup continues
239
what is Tay-Sachs
an LSD
240
how does pH level save the cell from lysosomal leakages
because the lysosomal enzymes work best at a lower pH, so there is a smaller risk of the lysosomal enzymes digesting the cell if they were to escape
