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anatomy and physiology > test 2 > Flashcards

test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what are tissues

A

are many cells ( and extracellular space) with similar structure and function working together

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2
Q

four main types of tissue

A

epithelial
connective
nervous
muscular

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3
Q

what is the main function of epithelial tissue

A

to cover almost all organs

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4
Q

why does epithelial tissue take on different forms

A

because different organs have different needs. different forms allow it to take on different functions

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5
Q

epithelial tissue has cells that are

A

packed closely together

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6
Q

what is an important thing that epithelial tissue shows

A

a polarity

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7
Q

what is a polarity for epithelial tissue

A

it always has an outer or top side called the apical side a lower or bottom side called the basal side

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8
Q

what is the basement membrane

A

where the epithelial tissue ends and the next layer of tissue begins

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9
Q

what are the three main shapes of epithelium

A

squamous, cuboidal, columnar

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10
Q

what are squamous epithelium

A

epithelium is short

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11
Q

what are cuboidal epithelium

A

epithelium is cubeshaped

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12
Q

what is columnar epithelium

A

epithelium is column shaped

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13
Q

what are the other ways epithelium can be sorted

A

simple, stratified, pseudostratified

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14
Q

what does simple epithelium look like

A

has just one layer of cells

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15
Q

what does stratified epithelium look like

A

has multiple layers of cells

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16
Q

what does pseudostratified epithelium look like

A

looks stratified , but isn’t

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17
Q

what should always look at to categorize squamous, cuboidal, etc

A

the most apical layer

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18
Q

2 other ways you can define epithelium

A

ciliated, glandular

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19
Q

what is ciliated epithelium

A

has cilia

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20
Q

what is cilia

A

hairlike or fingerlike projections that push things along the apical surface

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21
Q

what is glandular epithelium

A

epithelium that secretes some kind of fluid

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22
Q

two types of glandular epithelium

A
  • exocrine epithelium

- endocrine epithelium

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23
Q

what is exocrine epithelium

A

secretes things towards outside of organ or duct, often has ducts

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24
Q

what is endocrine epithelium

A

secretes things into blood stream, has no ducts

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25
Q

what can exocrine glands do

A

can from glands and secrete their product into the duct or on top of the organ

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26
Q

what can endocrine glands do

A

secrete the product directly in to the bloodstream, their products are almost always hormones

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27
Q

what is simple squamous epithelium

A

epithelium in a single layer of flat cells, cells are typically present along the edges of organs that need specific things allowed in or out (diffusion)

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28
Q

where is simple squamous epithelium often found

A

the blood vessels and alveoli ( air sacs in the lungs)

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29
Q

what is simple cuboidal epithelium

A

a single layer of cube shaped cells with round nuclei in the center

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30
Q

what does the shape of simple cuboidal epithelium allow them to do

A

absorb and/or secrete things

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31
Q

where are simple cuboidal epithelial cells often found

A

in the glands and kidneys

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32
Q

what is simple columnar epithelium

A

a single layer of column-shaped cells with round nuclei in the center, with more space than cuboidal epithelium

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33
Q

why does simple columnar epithelium have more space than cuboidal epithelium

A

to absorb and secrete things

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34
Q

where is simple columnar epithelium found and why

A

in the digestive tract and the uterus, because thats where much absorption happens

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35
Q

what is stratified squamous epithelium

A

a much thicker layer of cells that ares till flat on the apical side, although at base they may be a different shape

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36
Q

what is the main function of stratified squamous cells

A

to protect against abraision

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37
Q

where are stratified squamous epithelium found a lot

A

areas where abrasion happens a lot, the esophagus and vagina

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38
Q

what also has stratified squamous epithelium too

A

the skin, but the apical layers are heavily wrapped in the structural protein keratin

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39
Q

what is the function of pseudostratified epithelium

A

debris removal

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40
Q

what does the shape of pseudostratified epithelium help with

A

helps it secrete fluids like mucus well and typically has cilia

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41
Q

pseudostratified epithelium lines the majority of what

A

the respiratory tract

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42
Q

describe pseudostratified epithelium

A

exocrine secreting primarily mucus and ciliated

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43
Q

what does a transverse section the trachea show

A

the ciliated epithelium and its exocrine duct where mucus is secreted

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44
Q

***why does smoking cause cancer ?

A
  • smoking has been shown to damage cilia on respiratory epithelium.
  • cilia usually push bacteria and carcinogens upwards, away from lungs and towards the mouth where they can be coughed out.
  • with fewer working cilia, smokers are at a much higher risk for lung infections and cancer
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45
Q

what is transitional epithelium

A

looks similar to stratified epithelium, but the top layer of cells can change dramatically, sometimes they are almost squamous, but other times they are very large and dome-like

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46
Q

wha does transitional epithelium do

A

lines organs that need to stretch, most importantly the bladder and stretch with it

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47
Q

what is connective tissue

A

a glue that holds the body together

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48
Q

what are the two components of connective tissue

A

cells and matrix

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49
Q

what is matrix in connective tissue

A

all of the structural proteins between cells

the ground substance which is the gel that fills the rest of the space

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50
Q

what are the types of connective tissue

A 
areolar
adipose
cartilage
bone
dense
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51
Q

what is areolar connective tissue

A

the most common type of connective tissue and the most boring.

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52
Q

where is areolar connective tissue found

A

found beneath the basement membrane of the epithelium

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53
Q

what is areolar connective tissue defined by

A
  • fibrous proteins that are mostly collagen running in random directions
  • lots of empty space filled in the liquid
  • cells called fibroblasts, plus white blood cells
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54
Q

how do fibrous proteins get in the extracellular space

A

they’re made by cells than secreted

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55
Q

what is adipose connective tissue

A

the body’s storage for fat

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56
Q

what is the primary cell type for adipose tissue

A

adipocyte

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57
Q

describe adipocytes

A

they have very little room for matrix because adipocytes take up almost all the space, the nucleus of adipocytes is smoothed up against the membrane of the cell

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58
Q

average human has how many adipocytes

A

around 30 billion that store about 30 pounds of fat

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59
Q

when do adipocytes divide and when do they stay the same

A

they will divide in childhood and adolescence, but stay the same in adulthood , unless extreme weight gain

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60
Q

do the number adipocytes decrease in adulthood

A

no except for liposuction

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61
Q

what is another type of cartilaginous connective tissue

A

hyaline cartilage

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62
Q

where is hyaline cartilage found

A

the ends of most bones to serve as a cushion, on some of the ribs, and in the larynx, pharynx, and trachea

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63
Q

what were your bones originally composed of

A

hyaline cartilage

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64
Q

what is the one cell type of hyaline cartilage

A

chondrocytes

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65
Q

where are chondrocytes found

A

hollowed out areas called lacunae

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66
Q

what is the sole purpose of hyaline cartilage

A

to crank out collagen that makes up the vast majority of the matrix

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67
Q

what is another important fact about hyaline cartilage

A

it is avascular, so wounds here take a long time to heal

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68
Q

what type of tissue is bone considered

A

connective tissue

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69
Q

what is the matrix of bone

A

mostly collagen, but big difference is that calcium is embedded in the matrix as well

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70
Q

what does bone have

A

Haversian canals

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71
Q

what do Haversian canals do

A

make way fro blood vessels

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72
Q

what surrounds the Haversian canals

A

the most common bone cells called osteocytes

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73
Q

where is dense connective tissue found

A

in tendons and ligaments

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74
Q

what does dense connective tissue need to be

A

firm but stretchy

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75
Q

dense connective tissue contains primarily what

A

fibroblasts as its cell type and collagen as its main fiber

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76
Q

how is the collagen in dense connective tissue

A

parallel to let it better stretch

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77
Q

what are the three types of muscular tissue

A

skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle

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78
Q

describe skeletal muscle

A

the only kind of muscle that you can control, it connects to your bones, it is striated

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79
Q

describe smooth muscle

A

is controlled by your nervous system unconsciously, not striated

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80
Q

describe cardiac muscle

A

is self controlled, but can be sped up or down by the unconscious part of your nervous system. it is striated

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81
Q

what does it mean to be striated

A

vertical stripes

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82
Q

skeletal muscle muscle cells run how?

A

in the same direction

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83
Q

how many nuclei do skeletal cells have

A

are multinucleate

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84
Q

how do smooth muscle cells run

A

in many directions, can’t see any definitions

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85
Q

how many nucleus do smooth muscle cells have

A

1

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86
Q

how do cardiac muscle cells run

A

in kind of the same direction, looks like zebra stripes

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87
Q

how many nuclei do cardiac cells have

A

1 to 2 per cell

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88
Q

what type of tissue is nervous tissue

A

connective

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89
Q

how are nerves often bundled together

A

in structures called ganglia

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90
Q

what the main cells of nervous tissue

A

neurons which are long and skinny

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91
Q

what do you see in cross sections of nervous tissue

A

some cell bodies but also many tails

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92
Q

what happens in the digestive system

A

food travels through the tube that is your digestive system

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93
Q

brief process of digestive system

A

chewed in the mouth, then travels through the esophagus to stomach, from there remains are tossed into the small intestine, the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas all add some contents here

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94
Q

where does stuff get primarily broken down

A

the stomach and upper small intestine

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95
Q

where does almost all absorption happen

A

the small intestine

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96
Q

where is the remaining water sucked down in digestive system

A

the large intestine

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97
Q

where is the rest of the remainder excreted

A

the anus

98
Q

what are the two types of metabolism in the body

A

anabolism, and canabolism

99
Q

what is anabolism

A

building big molecules from small ones

100
Q

what is catabolism

A

breaking big molecules into small ones

101
Q

when do we take in most of nutrients

A

when we eat foods

102
Q

what do we do from food’s molecules

A

we catabolize them

103
Q

where is energy stored

A

in the bonds between atoms

104
Q

what happens when we break the bonds between atoms

A

we release energy that can be recaptured

105
Q

foods contain molecules that fall into what 4 main groups

A

proteins
crabs
fats
nucleic acids

106
Q

what are proteins

A

long strains of amino acids stuck together by peptide bonds

107
Q

insects, animals, and plants almost all use the same how many amino acids

A

20

108
Q

how can humans cheat with amino acids

A

we can cheat by using amino acids of of other insects, animals and plants to construct our proteins

109
Q

where is pepsin found

A

the stomach

110
Q

what does pepsin do

A

breaks apart proteins into smaller peptide chains

111
Q

what pH does pepsin work best

A

2

112
Q

the acidic conditions of the protein cause almost all eaten proteins to what

A

denature

113
Q

where are trypsin and chymotrypsin made

A

the pancreas

114
Q

where are trypsin and chymotrypsin secreted to

A

small intestine

115
Q

what do trypsin and chymotrypsin do

A

break down peptide chains into individual amino acids

116
Q

what happens after proteins have been cut into amino acids

A

the pieces are now small enough to be absorbed by the small intestine and pass into the bloodstream

117
Q

where do amino acids travel to from the bloodstream

A

all cells in the body to be used to build new proteins or other things

118
Q

what describes cells with keeping amino acids inside

A

they are very greedy

119
Q

what do cells do with their own and absorbed proteins

A

recycle them using the proteasome and the lysosome

120
Q

how do cells pull free amino acids

A

out of the bloodstream against a concentration gradient and using energy to do this

121
Q

can the body break apart amino acids to produce ATP

A

yes

122
Q

what is the body’s third choice for making energy

A

proteins

123
Q

what happens when proteins are broken down for energy

A

the N group is broken off and turned into ammonia, which is toxic, in the liver ammonia reacts with carbon dioxide to make urea which is released in urine

124
Q

what are lipids

A

fats, that are non polar

125
Q

what are two main places lipids can be found

A

the phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol

126
Q

what can lipids be converted into

A

steroids

127
Q

what can lipids be broken down into

A

energy

128
Q

what is the body’s second choice for energy

A

lipids

129
Q

what are lipids when they are eaten

A

they are too big to be absorbed by cells in the stomach or small intestine, so they form globs and sit in the small intestine

130
Q

where are bile salts made

A

the pancreas

131
Q

where are bile salts stored

A

the gallbladder

132
Q

what is the function of bile salts

A

to be released and make the globs of lipids smaller

133
Q

what do smaller globs of lipids mean

A

more surface area for pancreatic lipase

134
Q

what does more surface area mean

A

more enzyme activity

135
Q

once digested, lipids can be broken down to form what

A

ATP

136
Q

lipids breakdown for ATP is more efficient than what

A

amino acids

137
Q

what are the byproducts on lipids breakdown

A

acetoacetic acid, acetone

138
Q

what can acetone do

A

diffuse through lungs and into breath, gives it a fruity odor. this process is called ketoacidosis

139
Q

what are the two forms carbohydrates are consumed in

A

starches and sugars

140
Q

what are starches

A

long chains of sugars stuck together, they don’t taste sweet

141
Q

what are sugars

A

monosaccharides or disaccharides that taste sweet

142
Q

what is the primary molecule formed from carbohydrate breakdown

A

glucose

143
Q

what is sugars main purpose

A

being used to make energy

144
Q

what is the body’s first choice for making energy

A

carbohydrate breakdown

145
Q

starches are first broken apart by what in the digestive system

A

salivary amylase in the mouth

146
Q

what is the second breakdown of carbohydrates in the digestive system

A

they can be broken down by pancreatic amylase, which gets secreted into the small intestine. The remaining pieces are absorbed as sugar in the blood

147
Q

when in the bloodstream, sugar enters cells throough the help of what

A

insulin

148
Q

once in cells, glucose does what to make ATP

A

cellular respiration

149
Q

what is the most important metabolic pathway for cells

A

cellular respiration

150
Q

what is the chemical equation for cellular respiration

A

C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 = 6 CO2 + 6H2O and about 38 ATP

151
Q

what is hyperglycemia

A

too much glucose in the blood

152
Q

***what does the body do when there is too much glucose in the blood

A

the pancreas releases insulin, cells in the body pull this glucose out, some extra glucose is stored in the liver in chains called glycogen, other glucose is converted to and stored as fat in adipose tissue

153
Q

what is hypoglycemia

A

when there is not enough glucose in the blood

154
Q

*** what does the body do when there is not enough glucose in the blood

A

the pancreas releases glucagon, liver cells receive glucagon signals, then they break glycogen apart, releasing more sugar into the blood

155
Q

whats the end goal for food break down

A

ATP

156
Q

what is the extracellular space

A

the space between cells

157
Q

what does the extracellular space contain

A

extracellular fluid

extracellular matrix

158
Q

what is the extracellular fluid

A

mostly water (saline)

159
Q

what is the extracellular matrix

A

solid or gel like materials (lots of collagen) that holds the body together

160
Q

are some areas of the body very dense with cells

A

yes

161
Q

what do the areas with very few cells have a lot of instead

A

matrix

162
Q

what is a prokaryote

A

a single-celled organism with lack of nucleus and membrane-borne organelles

163
Q

what is a eukaryote

A

single celled or multi celled organism, contains nucleus and organelles

164
Q

what are the only cells in the human body that aren’t eukaryotic

A

red blood cells

165
Q

how many specialized types of cells in the human body

A

290

166
Q

all specialized cells are derived from what one cell

A

the zygote

167
Q

what is the zygote

A

formed when a mother’s egg meets a father’s sperm

168
Q

what is cell differentiation

A

a cell growing up and deciding what it wants to be

169
Q

how can cell differentiation be represented

A

many branches of a tree coming from one trunk

170
Q

the steps of cell differentiation are often

A

irreversible

171
Q

what are stem cells

A

cells that go under self-renewal

172
Q

what is self renewal for stem cells

A

they divide into two cells, and one goes on to grow up, while the other remains a stem cell

173
Q

what are the two types of stem cells

A

totipotent stem cells and pluripotent stem cells

174
Q

what are totipotent stem cells

A

can grow up to become anything

175
Q

what are pluripotent stem cells

A

can grow up to become several things, but not all things, there are many pluripotent stem cells in a full grown body

176
Q

what are progenitor cells

A

they are no longer stem cells because they do not self-renew, although some still divide. they can still become many different things when they grow up

177
Q

what are differentiated cells

A

cells that are all grown up

178
Q

what is the nucleus home to

A

the DNA

179
Q

does the dna ever leave the nucleus

A

no

180
Q

where are ribosomes made

A

the nucleus

181
Q

what part of the nucleus are ribosomes made

A

the nucleoli

182
Q

what envelope does the nucleus have

A

a nuclear envelope

183
Q

what does the nuclear envelope do

A

it is a membrane that separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell

184
Q

what is the plasma membrane

A

a “bag” around the cell

185
Q

what is the cell membrane made of

A

a phospholipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads on the outside and hydrophobic tails on the inside

186
Q

what does the hydrophobic tails on the inside do

A

stops water-soluble particles from entering

187
Q

what must the membrane fluidity remain

A

relatively constant despite changing conditions

188
Q

what are the three things that increase membrane fluidity

A
  1. temperature
  2. cholesterol
  3. unsaturated/saturated fatty acids
189
Q

how does low temperature influence membrane fluidity

A

it makes the fluidity lower and the phospholipids closer together

190
Q

how does high temperature influence membrane fluidity

A

it makes fluidity increase and the phospholipids further apart

191
Q

what is crystalized state

A

the cell membrane at a very low temperature

192
Q

how does cholesterol affect membrane fluidity at low temperatures

A

it can insert itself between phospholipids and increase the distance between them, and increase fluidity

193
Q

how does cholesterol affect membrane fluidity at high temperatures

A

it inserts itself between phospholipids and causes the lipids to be closer together and decreases membrane fluidity

194
Q

cholesterol is like a ___ for membrane fluidity

A

buffer

195
Q

what is the difference between the bonds of unsaturated and saturated fatty acids in phospholipids

A

the unsaturated look different and have double bonds

196
Q

what type of fatty acids stack better

A

the saturated fatty acids

197
Q

how do having saturated fatty acids affect membrane fluidity

A

it lowers fluidity

198
Q

how do having unsaturated fatty acids affect membrane fluidity

A

it increases fluidity

199
Q

what are the four main types of membrane proteins

A

transport proteins, receptor proteins, adhesion proteins, glycoproteins

200
Q

what do transport proteins do

A
  • they move things in or out of cells
  • they can usually be opened or closed
  • they are extremely selective
201
Q

what do receptor proteins do

A

help the inside and outside of the cell communicate

202
Q

which types of membrane proteins work together

A

transport and receptor proteins

203
Q

what do adhesion proteins do

A

like integrins, they help cells stick in place, some grab onto collagen in extracellular space, others grab onto other integrins on other cells and “hold hands”

204
Q

what do glycoproteins do

A

stick carbon chains into the extracellular space, forming a glycocalyx

205
Q

what does the cytoplasm do

A

fills space inside the membrane and outside of the nucleus

206
Q

what are the three main parts of the cytoplasm

A

the cytosol, the organelles, inclusions

207
Q

what is the cytosol

A

jelly-like fluid that fills space

208
Q

what are the organelles

A

machinery of the cell that floats in cytosol

209
Q

what are the inclusions

A

other pieces like fat droplets, proteins, pigments

210
Q

what are the mitochondria

A

the powerhouseS of the cell

211
Q

what happens in the mitochondria

A

glucose is broken down by enzymes, turned into ATP

212
Q

do mitochondria numbers vary widely by cell type

A

yes

213
Q

which cells have more mitochondira

A

cells that need more energy

214
Q

what are ribosomes

A

site of protein synthesis

215
Q

what are ribosomes made of

A

protein and RNA

216
Q

where are ribosomes NOT found

A

in the nucleus

217
Q

where are ribosomes found

A
  • floating in cytosol

- attached to the endoplasmic reticulum

218
Q

what is the endoplasmic reticulum

A

the circulatory system of the cell, a series of channels that can transport things

219
Q

what are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum

A

smooth ER and rough ER

220
Q

describe the smooth ER

A

no ribosomes, involved in breaking down chemicals

221
Q

where is the smooth ER commonly found

A

the liver

222
Q

describe the rough ER

A

has ribosomes, proteins are made here and can be transported around or out of the cell

223
Q

where is rough ER common

A

in cells that make proteins to be sent out of cells

224
Q

what is an example of cells that have lots of rough ER

A

cells in islets of Langerhans in pancreas have much rough ER, because they make insulin which is secreted there

225
Q

what is the Golgi apparatus

A

the post office of the cell, whose primary purpose is to mark proteins with directions of where to go

226
Q

what do proteins with similar directions do

A

form into pods and pinch off in secretory vesicles

227
Q

what do secretory vesicles do

A
  • some vessels exit the cell through process called exocytosis
  • others may go to membrane or lysosome
228
Q

what are lysosomes

A

break down bodies that are sacs of enzymes that break almost anything down

229
Q

what are the four types of enzymes in lysosomes

A

proteases, nucleases, lipases, amylases

230
Q

what do proteases do

A

break down proteins

231
Q

what do nucleases do

A

break apart nucleotides

232
Q

what do lipases do

A

break apart lipids

233
Q

what do amylases do

A

break down sugar/starch

234
Q

how to calculate magnification

A

the eyepiece (10x) times the objective lense 4x, 10x, 40x

235
Q

which knob can you turn

A

the fine adjustment knob

236
Q

which knob can’t you turn

A

the coarse adjustment knob

237
Q

how many total different lysosomal enzymes are there

A

50

238
Q

mechanism of LSDs

A

the enzyme of the lysosome doesn’t work, so there is a buildup of things in the cell, cell dies, buildup continues

239
Q

what is Tay-Sachs

A

an LSD

240
Q

how does pH level save the cell from lysosomal leakages

A

because the lysosomal enzymes work best at a lower pH, so there is a smaller risk of the lysosomal enzymes digesting the cell if they were to escape

anatomy and physiology (25 decks)

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