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anatomy and physiology > test 1 > Flashcards

test 1 Flashcards

1
Q

what is anatomical position

A

standing or laying down, feet shoulder length apart, arms down with palms facing foward

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2
Q

the five pairs

A 
superior and inferior
ventral and dorsal
medial and lateral 
proximal and distal
superficial and deep
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3
Q

superior

A

above

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4
Q

inferior

A

below

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5
Q

ventral

A

front

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6
Q

dorsal

A

back

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7
Q

medial

A

towards the midline

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8
Q

lateral

A

away from the midline

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9
Q

proximal

A

closer to the torso

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10
Q

distal

A

further from the torso

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11
Q

proximal and distal are only used to describe what

A

limbs

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12
Q

superficial

A

towards the body surface

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13
Q

deep

A

away from the body surface

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14
Q

coronal plane

A

cuts ventral and dorsal

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15
Q

sagittal plane

A

cuts left and right sides

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16
Q

transverse plane

A

cuts top and bottom

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17
Q

what is a cavity

A

a hollow space

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18
Q

what are the two main cavities

A

the dorsal and ventral cavity

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19
Q

what is in the dorsal cavity

A

the cranial cavity which holds the brain

the spinal cavity which holds the spine

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20
Q

what is in the ventral cavity

A

the thoracic cavity which holds the heart and lungs

the abdominal cavity which holds the stomach, liver and intestines

the pelvic cavity which holds the bladder and reproductive organs

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21
Q

midline

A

line of symmetry running straight down the body

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22
Q

two parts parts of the dorsal cavity are

A

connected

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23
Q

how is the thoracic cavity separated from the two ventral cavity

A

by the diaphragm

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24
Q

are the abdominal and pelvic cavity separated

A

NO

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25
Q

body

A

series of small things grouped together to make a bigger thing

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26
Q

what is the organization of life

A

atoms-molecules-cells-tissues-organs-organ systems

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27
Q

over 99% of the atoms in our body are what elements

A

carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen

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28
Q

what are other necessary atoms in small quantities

A

iron, calcium, sodium, potassium

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29
Q

what does iron do in the body

A

is a necessary component of hemoglobin in red blood

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30
Q

what does calcium do in the body

A

necessary for cell signals and muscle contraction

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31
Q

what does sodium do in the body

A

maintain the correct charge in cells

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32
Q

what are molecules made of

A

atoms

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33
Q

what range of size do molecules have

A

huge

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34
Q

what is the biggest molecule in the body

A

chromosome 1 with 1 billion atoms

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35
Q

4 main types of biomolecules

A

carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins

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36
Q

almost all cells in the body are

A

eukaryotic

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37
Q

define eukaryotic

A

organelles and a nucleus

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38
Q

can cells be very specialized

A

yes

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39
Q

what does it mean if cyte is at the end of a word

A

it is a cell

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40
Q

what are tissues

A

groups of cells with similar structure and function

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41
Q

what are the four main tissues of the body

A

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

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42
Q

what does epithelial tissue do

A

serve as a covering for all face and body surfaces

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43
Q

what does connective tissue do

A

provides support for the body

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44
Q

what does muscle tissue do

A

allow body to move (contract)

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45
Q

what does nervous tissue do

A

controls the body through nerves impulses

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46
Q

what are organs made of

A

all of tissue types inside

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47
Q

what is an organ system

A

organs working w/ each other to complete a full task

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48
Q

what is a carbohydrate

A

any molecule made of simple sugars

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49
Q

what is another way to say simple sugars

A

saccarides

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50
Q

what are almost are saccharides in the human body

A

glucose

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51
Q

what is a saccharide

A

a ring of carbon atoms that have hydrogen and oxygen attached

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52
Q

what is the ratio of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen in a saccharide

A

1 carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen

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53
Q

what are the two types of carbohydrates

A

simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates

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54
Q

define simple carbohydrates

A

made of one (mono) or two (di) rings (saccharides )

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55
Q

what is another way to say simple carbohydrates

A

sugars

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56
Q

define complex carbohydrates

A

made of three or more (poly) rings

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57
Q

what are complex carbohydrates also called

A

starches

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58
Q

carbs with 3 to nine rings can also be called

A

oligosaccharides

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59
Q

what does it mean if something ends in ose

A

it is a carbohydrate

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60
Q

what are carbohydrates usually used for

A

energy by breaking apart the chemical bonds in simple sugars, the body obtains energy to fuel almost all its functions

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61
Q

large amounts of carbohydrates consumed at once are stored where

A

the liver

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62
Q

glucose molecules are strung together in what type of chain in the liver

A

glycogen

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63
Q

plants fungi, some bugs and shellfish also use carbohydrates for what

A

rigid structure compounds like cellulose and chitin

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64
Q

lipids are what compared to carbs

A

more varied in chemical structure, have more carbon and less oxygen

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65
Q

what does each angle represent in drawings in organic chemistry

A

a carbon atom

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66
Q

what are two important examples of simple lipids in the body

A

cholesterol and steroids

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67
Q

what does the structure of steroid molecules revolve around

A

cholesterol

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68
Q

more complex molecules revolve around what molecules

A

glycerol

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69
Q

what attaches to the three OH groups on glycerol

A

chains of carbon known as fatty acids

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70
Q

what is the name of the bond between fatty acids

A

ester bonds

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71
Q

what is the result of of one glycerol and three fatty acids

A

triglyceride

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72
Q

what does cholesterol do

A

converted into steroids for the body to send chemical messages via the endocrine system

used to make cell membranes

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73
Q

what do triglycerides do

A

can be converted into phospholipids and used in cell membranes

stored in adipose tissue for energy use later on

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74
Q

what are the two primary types of nucleic acid molecules

A

deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid

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75
Q

what is DNA

A

genetic material

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76
Q

how is dna stored

A

in almost every cell in tight clusters called chromosomes

77
Q

how many chromosomes in a cell

A

46 ( 23 from mom) (23 from dad )

78
Q

should chromosomes be identical from one cell to another

A

yes (unless mutation)

79
Q

what are the nitrogenous bases of DNA

A

adenine-thymine

guanine-cytosine

80
Q

what does the order of bases in DNA determine

A

which protein will be formed

81
Q

what is the structure of DNA

A

double helix

82
Q

what is a karyotype

A

all 46 chromosomes from a cell laid out on a map

83
Q

what does DNA hold instructions for

A

making proteins .

84
Q

what percentage of chromosomes actually holds instructions for making proteins

A

1%

85
Q

what are genes

A

parts of the chromosome with instructions for making proteins

86
Q

how many genes in the human genome

A

20, 000

87
Q

how many copies of each gene in the human genome

A

two

88
Q

how many bade pairs in the genome

A

3 billion

89
Q

can DNA be broken down for energy

A

yes

90
Q

what are proteins

A

long strains of amino acids

91
Q

do proteins fold

A

yes

92
Q

how many amino acids in humans

A

20

93
Q

what are the three main parts of amino acids

A

the N side, the C side, the R side chain

94
Q

which part of amino acid makes each one unique

A

the R chain

95
Q

the C side of an amino acid will always combine with what said of the next amino acid

A

the N side

96
Q

what is the name of the chemical bonds holding amino acids together

A

peptide bonds

97
Q

another name for proteins

A

polypeptides

98
Q

what are the types of proteins

A

enzymes, signaling proteins, transport proteins, structural proteins, regulatory proteins

99
Q

are all enzymes proteins

A

yes

100
Q

what is the function of enzymes

A

to speed up chemical reactions and lower activation energy

101
Q

are enzymes used up

A

no

102
Q

what is a substrate

A

molecule(s) that originally attach to enzyme

103
Q

what is the product

A

molecule(s) released from the enzyme

104
Q

what is the active site

A

the place where the enzyme and substrate attach

105
Q

are there different enzymes for different chemical reactions

A

yes

106
Q

what is an enzyme complex

A

the enzyme and substrate attached together

107
Q

the is the equation for enzyme use

A

E+S becomes ES becomes EP becomes E+ P

108
Q

what are six examples of enzymes

A

salivary amylase, pepsin, DNA ligase, DNA helicase, DNA polymerase, ATP synthase

109
Q

what does salivary amylase do

A

it is an enzyme in saliva that breaks down starches into sugar

110
Q

what does pepsin do

A

it is found in the stomach, breaks down proteins into peptides, that into amino acids

111
Q

what does DNA ligase do

A

joins DNA strands together

112
Q

what does DNA helicase do

A

uncoils and separates DNA strands

113
Q

what does DNA polymerase do

A

builds DNA molecules by sticking nucleotides together

114
Q

what does ATP synthase do

A

enzyme that turns ADP into ATP

115
Q

do enzymes have a very specific shape

A

yes

116
Q

what are enzymes highly sensitive to

A

changes in pH or temperature

117
Q

can slight changes cause shape changes

A

yes

118
Q

changes in pH and temperature cause

A

denaturation

119
Q

example of important signaling protein

A

insulin

120
Q

what releases insulin

A

the pancreas

121
Q

what happens when cells in your pancreas detect glucose in your blood

A

insulin is released into your bloodstream

122
Q

what does insulin bind to

A

insulin receptors on cells

123
Q

does insulin enter the cell

A

no

124
Q

what happens when insulin binds to receptors

A

triggers a cascade that leads cells to be able to take in glucose from the blood and convert it into ATP

125
Q

why is insulin so important

A

without it, cells cannot take in glucose

126
Q

what is the problem with oxygen

A

it is not very soluble in water or blood, but it must travel through it to get to tissues

127
Q

what does hemoglobin do

A

found in red blood cells, transports oxygen to body cells

128
Q

how much oxygen can one hemoglobin hold

A

each hemoglobin can hold 4 oxygen molecules

129
Q

** how does hemoglobin know when to “let go” of oxygen molecules

A

the Bohr effect: when tissues work hard they release CO2, CO2 reacts with water, forming H+ molecules and making the blood more acidic. When the blood is more acidic hemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen, making it more prone to release it.

130
Q

what are two other ways to say structural proteins

A

fibrous proteins or scleroproteins

131
Q

how are structural proteins different in shape than other body proteins

A

they are not globular

132
Q

three examples of scleroproteins

A

collagen, elastin, keratin

133
Q

what is the most abundant protein in the body

A

collagen at 30%

134
Q

what is the function of collagen

A

take up extracellular space in the body and is the main connective tissue

135
Q

are there many subtypes of collagen

A

yes

136
Q

what is the cause of scurvy

A

a lack of vitamin C

137
Q

***why is vitamin C necessary

A

for two enzymes, prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase to link one collagen protein to another, without vitamin C, collagen fibers do not function properly

138
Q

what is the result of scurvy

A

Result: fatigue, feeling “out of it”, limb pain

Later: Swollen Gums, shortness of breath, easily bruised skin

Finally: Seizures, Jaundice, Edema and Death

139
Q

what do regulatory proteins do

A

cause genes to be turned up or down in response to certain events

140
Q

how do regulatory proteins accomplish their goal

A

usually by binding to DNA or RNA

141
Q

what is p53 often called

A

the guardian of the genome

142
Q

what are the two main functions of p53

A
  • to stop the cell cycle if DNA damage is detected

- cause cell to enter apoptosis if DNA damage is not fixed

143
Q

what is found in virtually all cancer cells

A

Mutant or inactivated p53

144
Q

what cells must do to become cancerous

A

inactivate or circumvent p53

145
Q

when is p53 inactive

A

usually resent but when bound to mdm2

146
Q

what happens when DNA damage is detected in the cell

A

p53 separates from mdm2

147
Q

what happens when p53 is alone

A

it will bind to a region of DNA and cause the genes for the coding of p21 to be expressed at higher rates

148
Q

what does p21 do

A

stops the cell cycle from continuing until the DNA damage has been repaired

149
Q

what is apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

150
Q

what happens if the dna damage is not repaired

A

p53 will lead to apoptosis by turning on other genes

151
Q

are p21 and mdm2 regulatory proteins

A

no

152
Q

what makes a cell “decide” to make a protein

A

because a regulatory protein has attached itself to DNA to tell this to start. If nothing else “something” tells a gene to “turn on”

153
Q

what is the central dogma of biology

A

transcription;DNA can be used to make RNA

translation: RNA can be used to make proteins

154
Q

**what are the steps of transcription

A

DNA unwinds with help of DNA helicase. RNA polymerase attaches to one side and makes a complementary strand of messenger RNA (mRNA)

155
Q

which part of the DNA is turned into mRNA

A

not the entire strand of DNA, small regions called genes are transcribed

156
Q

where is DNA always found in eukaryotes

A

the nucleus

157
Q

what do ribosomes do

A

make proteins

158
Q

where are ribosomes found

A

the rough ER or cytosol

159
Q

why does mRNA exit the nucleus

A

to enter the cytoplasm to find a ribosome so the mRNA can be translated

160
Q

what happens in translation

A

ribosomes turn mRNA into proteins, codons are read and turned into amino acids

161
Q

what is the expected lifespan of mRNA

A

3-8 minutes before degrading naturally

162
Q

what is the expected lifespan of DNA

A

521 years

163
Q

what do proteins undergo after being made

A

posttranslational modifications

164
Q

what are posttranslational modifications

A

modifications after translation

165
Q

what is the usual status of proteins after they are made

A

not active

166
Q

when does cleavage usually happen

A

when proteins have made it to their target site

167
Q

what are the types of posttranslational modifications usually needed

A

cleavage
folding
phosphorylation

168
Q

what is cleavage

A

when some amino acids need to be cut off or out

169
Q

what often needs to happen after cleavage

A

folding

170
Q

what do the remains need to fold into

A

patterns and in many cases need to attach to other pieces

171
Q

what does hemoglobin need to become functional

A

needs 4 polypeptides to come together

172
Q

what does insulin need to become active

A

it needs to be cleaved and two pieces are put back together

173
Q

what is phosphorylation

A

adding a phosphate group to the R-chain

174
Q

how many of the amino acids can be phosphorylated

A

3 out of 20

175
Q

phosphorylations are almost always what

A

reversible

176
Q

what does phosphorylation do

A

turn proteins on or off

177
Q

what does kinase do

A

its an enzyme that adds a phosphate group

178
Q

what does phosphatase do

A

enzyme that removes a phosphate group

179
Q

where can proteins go

A

just about anywhere

180
Q

how are proteins organized in cells

A

the are tagged and sorted

181
Q

what dosen’t break down proteins

A

lysosomes

182
Q

what breaks down old proteins

A

proteasomes

183
Q

what do proteasomes do

A

tear apart proteins that carry a specific signal

184
Q

where are proteasomes found

A

in cytosol or the nucleus

185
Q

another way to say ubiquitination

A

the molecular kiss of death

186
Q

what does a cell add to a protein when it is finished with it

A

protein ubiquitin

187
Q

what does ubiquitin do

A

they attach in a chain onto proteins. if the chain reaches 4 or more ubiquitins, the cell will transfer the protein to the proteasome where it destroyed

188
Q

what is polyubiquitination

A

when a chain of ubiquitin reaches four or more on a protein the protein is transferred to a proteasome where it is destroyed

189
Q

what proves that ubiquitin is very important to cell processes

A

they are pulled off before the protein is destroyed

anatomy and physiology (25 decks)

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