test 1 Flashcards
1
Q
what is anatomical position
A
standing or laying down, feet shoulder length apart, arms down with palms facing foward
2
Q
the five pairs
A
superior and inferior ventral and dorsal medial and lateral proximal and distal superficial and deep
3
Q
superior
A
above
4
Q
inferior
A
below
5
Q
ventral
A
front
6
Q
dorsal
A
back
7
Q
medial
A
towards the midline
8
Q
lateral
A
away from the midline
9
Q
proximal
A
closer to the torso
10
Q
distal
A
further from the torso
11
Q
proximal and distal are only used to describe what
A
limbs
12
Q
superficial
A
towards the body surface
13
Q
deep
A
away from the body surface
14
Q
coronal plane
A
cuts ventral and dorsal
15
Q
sagittal plane
A
cuts left and right sides
16
Q
transverse plane
A
cuts top and bottom
17
Q
what is a cavity
A
a hollow space
18
Q
what are the two main cavities
A
the dorsal and ventral cavity
19
Q
what is in the dorsal cavity
A
the cranial cavity which holds the brain
the spinal cavity which holds the spine
20
Q
what is in the ventral cavity
A
the thoracic cavity which holds the heart and lungs
the abdominal cavity which holds the stomach, liver and intestines
the pelvic cavity which holds the bladder and reproductive organs
21
Q
midline
A
line of symmetry running straight down the body
22
Q
two parts parts of the dorsal cavity are
A
connected
23
Q
how is the thoracic cavity separated from the two ventral cavity
A
by the diaphragm
24
Q
are the abdominal and pelvic cavity separated
A
NO
25
body
series of small things grouped together to make a bigger thing
26
what is the organization of life
atoms-molecules-cells-tissues-organs-organ systems
27
over 99% of the atoms in our body are what elements
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen
28
what are other necessary atoms in small quantities
iron, calcium, sodium, potassium
29
what does iron do in the body
is a necessary component of hemoglobin in red blood
30
what does calcium do in the body
necessary for cell signals and muscle contraction
31
what does sodium do in the body
maintain the correct charge in cells
32
what are molecules made of
atoms
33
what range of size do molecules have
huge
34
what is the biggest molecule in the body
chromosome 1 with 1 billion atoms
35
4 main types of biomolecules
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins
36
almost all cells in the body are
eukaryotic
37
define eukaryotic
organelles and a nucleus
38
can cells be very specialized
yes
39
what does it mean if cyte is at the end of a word
it is a cell
40
what are tissues
groups of cells with similar structure and function
41
what are the four main tissues of the body
epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
42
what does epithelial tissue do
serve as a covering for all face and body surfaces
43
what does connective tissue do
provides support for the body
44
what does muscle tissue do
allow body to move (contract)
45
what does nervous tissue do
controls the body through nerves impulses
46
what are organs made of
all of tissue types inside
47
what is an organ system
organs working w/ each other to complete a full task
48
what is a carbohydrate
any molecule made of simple sugars
49
what is another way to say simple sugars
saccarides
50
what are almost are saccharides in the human body
glucose
51
what is a saccharide
a ring of carbon atoms that have hydrogen and oxygen attached
52
what is the ratio of oxygen, carbon, hydrogen in a saccharide
1 carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen
53
what are the two types of carbohydrates
simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates
54
define simple carbohydrates
made of one (mono) or two (di) rings (saccharides )
55
what is another way to say simple carbohydrates
sugars
56
define complex carbohydrates
made of three or more (poly) rings
57
what are complex carbohydrates also called
starches
58
carbs with 3 to nine rings can also be called
oligosaccharides
59
what does it mean if something ends in ose
it is a carbohydrate
60
what are carbohydrates usually used for
energy by breaking apart the chemical bonds in simple sugars, the body obtains energy to fuel almost all its functions
61
large amounts of carbohydrates consumed at once are stored where
the liver
62
glucose molecules are strung together in what type of chain in the liver
glycogen
63
plants fungi, some bugs and shellfish also use carbohydrates for what
rigid structure compounds like cellulose and chitin
64
lipids are what compared to carbs
more varied in chemical structure, have more carbon and less oxygen
65
what does each angle represent in drawings in organic chemistry
a carbon atom
66
what are two important examples of simple lipids in the body
cholesterol and steroids
67
what does the structure of steroid molecules revolve around
cholesterol
68
more complex molecules revolve around what molecules
glycerol
69
what attaches to the three OH groups on glycerol
chains of carbon known as fatty acids
70
what is the name of the bond between fatty acids
ester bonds
71
what is the result of of one glycerol and three fatty acids
triglyceride
72
what does cholesterol do
converted into steroids for the body to send chemical messages via the endocrine system
used to make cell membranes
73
what do triglycerides do
can be converted into phospholipids and used in cell membranes
stored in adipose tissue for energy use later on
74
what are the two primary types of nucleic acid molecules
deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid
75
what is DNA
genetic material
76
how is dna stored
in almost every cell in tight clusters called chromosomes
77
how many chromosomes in a cell
46 ( 23 from mom) (23 from dad )
78
should chromosomes be identical from one cell to another
yes (unless mutation)
79
what are the nitrogenous bases of DNA
adenine-thymine
| guanine-cytosine
80
what does the order of bases in DNA determine
which protein will be formed
81
what is the structure of DNA
double helix
82
what is a karyotype
all 46 chromosomes from a cell laid out on a map
83
what does DNA hold instructions for
making proteins .
84
what percentage of chromosomes actually holds instructions for making proteins
1%
85
what are genes
parts of the chromosome with instructions for making proteins
86
how many genes in the human genome
20, 000
87
how many copies of each gene in the human genome
two
88
how many bade pairs in the genome
3 billion
89
can DNA be broken down for energy
yes
90
what are proteins
long strains of amino acids
91
do proteins fold
yes
92
how many amino acids in humans
20
93
what are the three main parts of amino acids
the N side, the C side, the R side chain
94
which part of amino acid makes each one unique
the R chain
95
the C side of an amino acid will always combine with what said of the next amino acid
the N side
96
what is the name of the chemical bonds holding amino acids together
peptide bonds
97
another name for proteins
polypeptides
98
what are the types of proteins
enzymes, signaling proteins, transport proteins, structural proteins, regulatory proteins
99
are all enzymes proteins
yes
100
what is the function of enzymes
to speed up chemical reactions and lower activation energy
101
are enzymes used up
no
102
what is a substrate
molecule(s) that originally attach to enzyme
103
what is the product
molecule(s) released from the enzyme
104
what is the active site
the place where the enzyme and substrate attach
105
are there different enzymes for different chemical reactions
yes
106
what is an enzyme complex
the enzyme and substrate attached together
107
the is the equation for enzyme use
E+S becomes ES becomes EP becomes E+ P
108
what are six examples of enzymes
salivary amylase, pepsin, DNA ligase, DNA helicase, DNA polymerase, ATP synthase
109
what does salivary amylase do
it is an enzyme in saliva that breaks down starches into sugar
110
what does pepsin do
it is found in the stomach, breaks down proteins into peptides, that into amino acids
111
what does DNA ligase do
joins DNA strands together
112
what does DNA helicase do
uncoils and separates DNA strands
113
what does DNA polymerase do
builds DNA molecules by sticking nucleotides together
114
what does ATP synthase do
enzyme that turns ADP into ATP
115
do enzymes have a very specific shape
yes
116
what are enzymes highly sensitive to
changes in pH or temperature
117
can slight changes cause shape changes
yes
118
changes in pH and temperature cause
denaturation
119
example of important signaling protein
insulin
120
what releases insulin
the pancreas
121
what happens when cells in your pancreas detect glucose in your blood
insulin is released into your bloodstream
122
what does insulin bind to
insulin receptors on cells
123
does insulin enter the cell
no
124
what happens when insulin binds to receptors
triggers a cascade that leads cells to be able to take in glucose from the blood and convert it into ATP
125
why is insulin so important
without it, cells cannot take in glucose
126
what is the problem with oxygen
it is not very soluble in water or blood, but it must travel through it to get to tissues
127
what does hemoglobin do
found in red blood cells, transports oxygen to body cells
128
how much oxygen can one hemoglobin hold
each hemoglobin can hold 4 oxygen molecules
129
** how does hemoglobin know when to "let go" of oxygen molecules
the Bohr effect: when tissues work hard they release CO2, CO2 reacts with water, forming H+ molecules and making the blood more acidic. When the blood is more acidic hemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen, making it more prone to release it.
130
what are two other ways to say structural proteins
fibrous proteins or scleroproteins
131
how are structural proteins different in shape than other body proteins
they are not globular
132
three examples of scleroproteins
collagen, elastin, keratin
133
what is the most abundant protein in the body
collagen at 30%
134
what is the function of collagen
take up extracellular space in the body and is the main connective tissue
135
are there many subtypes of collagen
yes
136
what is the cause of scurvy
a lack of vitamin C
137
***why is vitamin C necessary
for two enzymes, prolyl hydroxylase and lysyl hydroxylase to link one collagen protein to another, without vitamin C, collagen fibers do not function properly
138
what is the result of scurvy
Result: fatigue, feeling "out of it", limb pain
Later: Swollen Gums, shortness of breath, easily bruised skin
Finally: Seizures, Jaundice, Edema and Death
139
what do regulatory proteins do
cause genes to be turned up or down in response to certain events
140
how do regulatory proteins accomplish their goal
usually by binding to DNA or RNA
141
what is p53 often called
the guardian of the genome
142
what are the two main functions of p53
- to stop the cell cycle if DNA damage is detected
| - cause cell to enter apoptosis if DNA damage is not fixed
143
what is found in virtually all cancer cells
Mutant or inactivated p53
144
what cells must do to become cancerous
inactivate or circumvent p53
145
when is p53 inactive
usually resent but when bound to mdm2
146
what happens when DNA damage is detected in the cell
p53 separates from mdm2
147
what happens when p53 is alone
it will bind to a region of DNA and cause the genes for the coding of p21 to be expressed at higher rates
148
what does p21 do
stops the cell cycle from continuing until the DNA damage has been repaired
149
what is apoptosis
programmed cell death
150
what happens if the dna damage is not repaired
p53 will lead to apoptosis by turning on other genes
151
are p21 and mdm2 regulatory proteins
no
152
what makes a cell "decide" to make a protein
because a regulatory protein has attached itself to DNA to tell this to start. If nothing else "something" tells a gene to "turn on"
153
what is the central dogma of biology
transcription;DNA can be used to make RNA
translation: RNA can be used to make proteins
154
**what are the steps of transcription
DNA unwinds with help of DNA helicase. RNA polymerase attaches to one side and makes a complementary strand of messenger RNA (mRNA)
155
which part of the DNA is turned into mRNA
not the entire strand of DNA, small regions called genes are transcribed
156
where is DNA always found in eukaryotes
the nucleus
157
what do ribosomes do
make proteins
158
where are ribosomes found
the rough ER or cytosol
159
why does mRNA exit the nucleus
to enter the cytoplasm to find a ribosome so the mRNA can be translated
160
what happens in translation
ribosomes turn mRNA into proteins, codons are read and turned into amino acids
161
what is the expected lifespan of mRNA
3-8 minutes before degrading naturally
162
what is the expected lifespan of DNA
521 years
163
what do proteins undergo after being made
posttranslational modifications
164
what are posttranslational modifications
modifications after translation
165
what is the usual status of proteins after they are made
not active
166
when does cleavage usually happen
when proteins have made it to their target site
167
what are the types of posttranslational modifications usually needed
cleavage
folding
phosphorylation
168
what is cleavage
when some amino acids need to be cut off or out
169
what often needs to happen after cleavage
folding
170
what do the remains need to fold into
patterns and in many cases need to attach to other pieces
171
what does hemoglobin need to become functional
needs 4 polypeptides to come together
172
what does insulin need to become active
it needs to be cleaved and two pieces are put back together
173
what is phosphorylation
adding a phosphate group to the R-chain
174
how many of the amino acids can be phosphorylated
3 out of 20
175
phosphorylations are almost always what
reversible
176
what does phosphorylation do
turn proteins on or off
177
what does kinase do
its an enzyme that adds a phosphate group
178
what does phosphatase do
enzyme that removes a phosphate group
179
where can proteins go
just about anywhere
180
how are proteins organized in cells
the are tagged and sorted
181
what dosen't break down proteins
lysosomes
182
what breaks down old proteins
proteasomes
183
what do proteasomes do
tear apart proteins that carry a specific signal
184
where are proteasomes found
in cytosol or the nucleus
185
another way to say ubiquitination
the molecular kiss of death
186
what does a cell add to a protein when it is finished with it
protein ubiquitin
187
what does ubiquitin do
they attach in a chain onto proteins. if the chain reaches 4 or more ubiquitins, the cell will transfer the protein to the proteasome where it destroyed
188
what is polyubiquitination
when a chain of ubiquitin reaches four or more on a protein the protein is transferred to a proteasome where it is destroyed
189
what proves that ubiquitin is very important to cell processes
they are pulled off before the protein is destroyed
