Psychology Unit 5 Part I Flashcards
1
Q
Recall
A
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
2
Q
Recognition
A
A measure of memory in which the person identifies items previous learned as on a multiple choice test
3
Q
Relearning
A
A measure of memory that asses the amount of time saved when learning material again
4
Q
Hermann Ebbinghaus
A
Showed how repetition of speaking aloud a random letter list decreased the amount of time it took to recall the list the next day
5
Q
Overlearning
A
Rehearsing information even after you know it to retain it longer
6
Q
Multiple Choice Questions test
A
recognition
7
Q
Fill in the black test
A
recalling
8
Q
Tests of recognition and of time spent relearning demonstrates that we
A
remember more than we can recall
9
Q
Encoding
A
The process of getting information into the memory system - ex. extracting meaning
10
Q
Storage
A
The process of retaining encoded information over time
11
Q
Retrieval
A
The process of getting information out of memory storage
12
Q
Parallel Processing
A
Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions
13
Q
sensory memory
A
The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
14
Q
Short-term memory
A
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten
15
Q
Long-term memory
A
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
16
Q
Working memory
A
A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious active processing of incoming auditory and visual information and of information retrieved form long-term memory
17
Q
Fill out the information-processing model
A
You better actually do it
18
Q
Pros and Cons to brain = computer analogy
A
Pros:
- Encode, storage, retrieval
- Information-Processing model
Cons:
- Brains are more fragile
- Computers process subsequentially and/or alternating tasks
- Brains can process simultaneously (and sometimes unconsciously) with parallel processing
19
Q
Connectionism
A
Idea that memory is a product of interconnected neural networks
- specific memories come from certain activation patterns within networks
- New knowledge changes connections
20
Q
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin Three-Step Model
A
- Sensory memory: Records fleeting information that is soon-to-be-remembered
- Process information to short-term memory. Then encode with rehearsal
- Moves to long-term memory for later retrieval
21
Q
Draw a Ebbinghaus retention curve
A
Will do
22
Q
Cognition
A
All activities involved with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating something
23
Q
Memory
A
The acquisition (encoding), storage, and retrieval of learned information.
24
Q
Why is memory divided into three steps?
A
Because it can break at any one of them
25
What is the difference threshold between short to long term memory?
60 seconds
26
__________ revised ___________ and __________ idea of short-term memory
Alan Baddeley, Richard Atkinson, Richard Shiffrin
27
What are the two basic functions of working memory?
To make sense of new input and linking it to long-term memories
28
Describe Alan Baddeley's model of working memory
The central executive focuses attention from auditory rehearsal and visual-spatial information and either links long-term memory to make sense of it, or turns the input into long-term memory
29
Explicit Memories aka declarative memory
Retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
30
Effortful Processing
Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
31
Where are explicit memories built and stored? How is it done?
In the frontal lobe and hippocampus and is done by effortful processing
32
Implicit Memory aka nondeclarative memory
Largely skips working memory. Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
33
Where is implicit memories associated with and how are they made?
Cerebellum, automatic processing
34
Why can you know how to walk before you read?
Infants don't have a developed frontal lobe to store explicit memory, but they have a cerebellum.
35
Example of procedural memory (implicit memory)
How to ride a bike
36
Example of classically conditions associations among stimuli (implicit memory)
Having an instant fear reaction to dogs without recalling the time you were bit by a dog as a kid
37
Effortful processing can become
automatic. Like learning to read in a new language and slowly become more fluent.
38
Automatic Processing
Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
39
Iconic Memory
A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting more more than a few tenths of a second
40
Echoic Memory
A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
41
Two types of sensory memory
Iconic and echoic
42
George Sperling
Flashed nine letters for a split of a second. People could not recall all nine at once. But they could recall each specific row
43
Who proposed how many "units" of information we can store in short-term memory? How many units?
George Miller, 7 (+/- 2)
44
What decreases the life span of short-term processing
The lack of active processing (aka isolated focus)
45
Effortful Processing Strategies
1. Chunking: Breaking things into units (like 7)
2. Linking: Relating it to other memorized information
3. Mnemonics: Organization and visualization
4. Hierarchies: Broad umbrella terms and subdivisions
177620012023
1776 2001 2023
46
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
47
Mnemonics
Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imaginary and organizational devices.
48
Types of Mnemonics
Peg-Word System: Plug into something you know
Rhythmic
Method of Loci: Inventing vivid mental stories
You can combine all three
49
Spacing Effect
The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieve through massed
30 mins 3 times a week working out vs. 6 hours once
50
Testing effect
Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
51
Shallow processing
Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words
52
Deep processing
Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
53
Self-reference effect
The tendency to recall information when it relates to ourselves rather than others
54
How does the brain NOT store memories (how does it actually)
NOT: Discrete single locations. You can remove any part of a mouse's cortex and it'll know the maze pathway at least partially
Rather through connected brain networks
55
Semantic Memory
Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
56
Episodic Memory
Explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
57
What networks processes and stores conscious memory systems?
the frontal lobes and hippocampus
58
What type of memories each part of the frontal lobes hold
Prefrontal cortex: Past experience
Left: More logical units
Right: Visualization
59
What does the hippocampus do for memories?
It saves explicit memories
60
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories-of facts and events-for storage.
Note: Memories stay here temporarily before they migrate
61
Damage to the hippocampus results in
Inability to save explicit memories
Left: Trouble remembering verbal information
Right: Visual designs and locations
62
Memory Consolidation
The neural storage of a long-term memory
63
What supports memory consolidation?
Sleep! Why? Hippocampus actively works in deep sleep
64
Where are implicit memories stored?
The cerebellum
65
Where are procedural memories facilitated?
The basal ganglia
66
What influences infant amnesia?
1. Explicit memory comes with a command of language that infants don't have
2. Hippocampus is one of the last brain structures to mature
67
How does emotion increase focus
Stress/excitement provokes the amygdala to release hormones that boosts activity in memory-forming areas
68
Eric Kandel
He discovered that, when learning, sea slugs release serotonin into certain neurons. Makes synapse more efficient and increase the number.
69
Long-Term potentiation (LTP)
An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory
70
Proof that LTP is a physical basis for memory
- Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning
- Drugs that mimic what happens during learning increase LTP
71
How does electroconvulsive therapy affect memory
It will wipe out very recent memories, but not long-term
72
Fill out the Memory processing chart on page 344
Alrighty!
73
The more ___________ you have, the better you are at finding the targeted memory
retrieval cues
74
Priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associated in memory
75
Example of priming
Seeing a missing child poster, then may unconsciously be primed to interpret a adult-child interaction as a kidnapping
76
Encoding specificity principle (context dependent memory)
The idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall
say silk silk silk silk silk
what do cows drink?
77
Mood-congruent memory (State-dependent memory)
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
After the gym, you remember why you like the gym
Before the gym you don't
78
Serial position effect
Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Recency effect (better recalled immediately) and primacy effect (better recalled immediately, but also okay later)
79
Flashbulb memory
A clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. (like people knowing where they were during 9/11)
80
Anterograde Memory
A rare inability to form new memories
81
Retrograde Memory
An inability to retrieve inform one's past
82
People with explicit memory problems can still
gain implicit memories (without awareness in how)
83
Cognition
All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
84
Concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
85
Prototype
A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories
86
How do we form concepts?
Developing prototypes
87
People will say a crow is a bird faster than they say a penguin because
The penguin is further than the prototype of the concept of a bird
88
Discrimination Prototype
If it is not this concept then its this one. Ex. if not man then woman.
89
What do concepts do? (good and bad)
Speed up thinking, but doesn't make us wiser
90
Creativity
The ability to produce new and valuable ideas
91
Convergent Thinking
Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution
92
Divergent Thinking
Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions
93
Aptitude
The ability to learn
94
Injury to __________ can leave _________ intact but destroy ________
Certain frontal lobe areas, convergent thinking, divergent thinking
95
Robert Sternburg's five components of creativity
1. Expertise: Collecting as many mental building block as possible to later form connections
2. Imaginative thinking skills: Ability to see new ways, find patterns, and make connections
3. Venturesome Personality: Seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, perseveres in overcoming obstacles
4. Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by personal satisfaction
5. Creative environment: Supported by others and surroundings
96
List some ways to solve problems
- Trial and error
- Algorithms
- Heuristics
- Insight
97
Algorithim
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
98
Pros and cons to algorithms
Slower but more accurate
99
Heuristic
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently
100
Pros and cons to heuristics
Usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm.
101
Insight
A sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions
102
Which brain scans indicated a burst of activity associated with insight?
EEGs and fMRIS
103
Wolfgang Köhler
Indicated that other creatures (other than humans) display insight
ex. Crow and water and ape and stick
104
Confirmation Bias
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
105
Fixation
In cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving
106
What does confirmation bias cause?
fixation
107
Mental Set
A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
108
Perceptual Set
Predisposes what we perceive and think
109
Intuition
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning
110
Who studied representativeness and availability heuristics?
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman
111
Representative Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information
112
Availability Heuristic
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness) we presume such events are common
113
What can you conclude from availability heuristics?
We often fear the wrong things
114
Causes for why we fear the wrong things
1. We fear what our ancestral history feared (snakes, spiders)
2. We cannot control (planes)
3. What is immediate (Take off and landing)
4. Most readily imaginable (Shark bite vs. heart disease)
115
Overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident that correct- to overestimate that accuracy of our beliefs and judgements
116
Planning Fallacy
Overestimating our future leisure time and income
117
Belief Perserverance
Clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
118
Framing
The way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgements
(90 percent survival rate vs. 10 percent death rate)
119
Pros and Cons of Intuition
Pros: Conscious thinking can sometimes throw you off when under pressure, adaptive (quick reactions)
Cons: Can lead us to the wrong conclusions
120
There is a good review page on 378
Why thank you Jane I will follow your great advice
121
Language
Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
122
Phoneme
In a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
ex. b, th, a
123
Morpheme
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such a a prefix)
124
Grammar
In a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. Semantics is the language's set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is its set of rules for combing words into grammatically sensible sentences.
125
Noam Chomsky
Linguist who argued that language is nature's gift. Theorized universal grammar (built in predisposition to learn grammar rules)
126
Receptive Language
A babies' ability to understand what is said to and about them
127
Babbling stage
Beginning around 4 months, the stage of speech developments in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
128
Productive Language
The ability to produce words
129
One-Word stage
The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words
130
Two-word stage
Beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements
131
Telegraphic speech
Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-"go car"-using mostly nouns and verbs
132
Months and language developement stage
4: Babbles many speech sounds
10: Babbling resembles household language
12: One-word speech
24: Two-word speech
24+: Rapid development into complete sentences
133
What happens to language development after 7 years of age?
It becomes increasingly more difficult to master a language
134
Aphasia
Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's Area (impairing speaking) or the Wernicke's Area (impairing understanding)
135
Broca's Area
Helps control language expression-an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
136
Wernicke's Area
A brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
137
Benjamin Lee Whorf
Formulated linguistic determinism
138
Linguistic determinism
The strong form of Whorf's hypothesis - that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us
139
Linguistic Influence
The weaker form of "linguistic relativity" - the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world view is "relative to" our cultural language
140
Deaf children born with hearing-nonsigning parents often
Delay their early language experiences
