AP Bio Exam 5 Flashcards
1
Q
Environment
A
Other organisms and the physical aspects of an organisms surrounding
2
Q
Evolution
A
Descent with modification; A change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation
3
Q
Darwin published
A
The Origin of Species
4
Q
Evolution can be viewed through two ways:
A
as a pattern (data of observations) and as a process (mechanisms that cause)
5
Q
Aristotle’s belief in evolution
A
Species are fixed but there are similarities among groups of organisms. They differentiate based on complexity
6
Q
Scala Naturae
A
Aristotle’s belief that life can be organized in a scale of increasing complexity
7
Q
The scientists of 1700s referred to the __________ by believing ________
A
Old Testament; all creatures’ designs have a purpose
8
Q
Carolus Linnaeus
A
Swedish physician and botanist;
developed the binomial classification of species
9
Q
Linnaeus’s classification system differentiates from the scalae naturae in that
A
it is nested. They were categorized based on the pattern of their creation
10
Q
Darwin’s observations about Linnaeus
A
- Classification should instead be based on evolutionary relationships
- Scientists who used the Linnean system happen to follow those relationships regardless
11
Q
Fossils
A
The remains or traces of organisms of the past
12
Q
Strata
A
Superimposed layers of rocks formed by new layers of sediment covering older ones and compressing them
13
Q
Paleontology
A
The study of fossils
14
Q
George Cuvier contributions to evolution
A
Largely developed paleontology
- He noted that the older strata (near Paris) was, the more dissimilar the life-forms were to current.
- New species appeared and disappeared in strata layers.
- Believed that each boundary between strata represented a sudden catastrophic event and were then repopulated by species immigrating from other areas
15
Q
Cuvier believed in __________ but not in ____________
A
common extinctions, evolution
16
Q
Cuvier vs. Hutton beliefs
A
Cuvier: Sudden catastrophic events caused old life forms to go extinct and new life forms to immigrate
Hutton: Earth’s geological features come from gradual mechanisms (ex. valleys being formed by rivers)
17
Q
James Hutton
A
Scottish geologist that proposed gradual mechanisms explained Earth’s geological features.
18
Q
Charles Lyell
A
Believed Hutton’s geological theories are still ongoing and by the same rate
- Wrote Principles of Geology that Darwin read on his voyage
19
Q
Darwin’s beliefs on Lyell and Hutton
A
- Used their theories to justify that the Earth must be much older than a few thousand years (since the mechanisms are slow)
- Proposed these “slow” theories could be applied to biological evolution.
- An earthquake he experienced on the voyage reinforced his idea
20
Q
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
A
French biologist that incorrectly theorized about how evolution works
- Found several lines of descent and used two principles to explain them
21
Q
Lamarck’s two principles
A
Use and disuse and Inheritance of acquired characteristics
22
Q
Use and Disuse principle
A
Lamarck’s principle that parts of the body that were excessively used got stronger and larger, while those that were not deteriorate
ex. giraffe stretching its neck to reach high branches
23
Q
Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics
A
Lamarck’s theory that organisms could pass modifications they acquired during life to their offspring
24
Q
Lamarck thought evolution occurs because
A
organisms have an innate drive to become more complex
25
Lamarck vs. Darwin
Similarities:
- Agreed that variation was introduced through inheritance of acquired characteristics
- Theories went against the Old Testament beliefs about design of creatures
Lamarck:
- Use and Disuse theory
- Organism's have a natural drive to become more complex
Darwin:
-
26
Darwin was on the ship _________
HMS Beagle (starting in 1831)
27
Adaptations
Inherited characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific environments
28
Darwin's big question during his voyage
Could a new species arise from an ancestral form by the gradual accumulation of adaptations to a different environment?
29
Differences in Galápagos finches
Cactus-eater: Long, sharp beak helps it tear and eat cactus flowers and pulp
Insect-eater: narrow, pointed beak to grasp insects
Seed-eater: Large beak to crack seeds found on ground
30
Natural Selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than do other individuals because of those traits
31
Alfred Russel Wallace
Developed a hypothesis on natural selection nearly identical to Darwin
32
Darwin gathered evidence that natural selection explains three broad observations about nature:
Unity of life, diversity of life, the striking ways in which organisms are suited for life in their environments
33
In the first edition of The Origin of Species, Darwin never used the word
evolution
34
Artificial Selection
Modifying other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits
35
Darwin's two observations and inferences
Observation #1: Members of a population often vary in their inherited traits
Observation #2: All species can produce more offspring that their environment can support, and many of these offspring fail to survive and reproduce
Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited traits give them a higher probability of surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave more offspring than do other individuals
Inference #2: This unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations
36
Key Features of Natural Selection
pg. 474
37
Soapberry Bugs
The beak length corresponds to the location of the seeds in the fruits they eat
38
MRSA
Ongoing natural selection
-
39
Organisms evolve during their lifetimes (T/F)
F
40
Natural selection acts on individuals, but only populations evolve (T/F)
T
41
Microevolution
a change in allele frequencies in a population over generations
42
Three mechanisms cause allele frequency change:
Natural selection
Genetic drift
Gene flow
43
What is genetic variation among individuals is caused by?
differences in genes or other DNA segments
44
average heterozygosity
measures the average percent of loci that are heterozygous in a population
45
Genetic variation can be measured as
gene variability or nucleotide variability
46
Four mechanisms that increase genetic variability
Formation of new alleles (Mutations)
Altering Gene Number or Position
Rabid Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction
47
Only mutations in cells that produce _________ can be passed to offspring
gametes
48
A ______ mutation is a change in one base in a gene
point
49
Example of Altering Gene Number or Position
An ancestral odor-detecting gene has been duplicated many times: humans have 350 copies of the gene, mice have 1,000
50
________ of small pieces of DNA increases genome size and is usually less harmful
Duplication
51
Average rate of mutation in plants and animals
one mutation in every 100,000 genes per generation
52
Mutation ______ are often lower in prokaryotes and higher in viruses
rates
53
Mutations ___ quickly in prokaryotes and viruses because they have short generation times
accumulate
54
In organisms that reproduce _____ recombination of alleles is more important than mutation in producing the genetic differences that make adaptation possible
sexually
55
What does the hardy-Weinberg equation test?
whether a population is evolving
56
population
a localized group of individuals capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
57
gene pool
consists of all the alleles for all loci in a population
58
A locus is fixed if
all individuals in a population are homozygous for the same allele
59
If there are two or more alleles for a locus
diploid individuals may be either homozygous or heterozygous
60
Hardy-Weinburg equation
p + q = 1
p = frequency of allele 1 of a diploid organism
q = frequency of allele 2 of a diploid organism
61
When is a population not evolving?
Frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population remain constant from generation to generation.
In a given population where gametes contribute to the next generation randomly, allele frequencies will not change.
62
The five conditions for non-evolving populations are rarely met in nature:
No mutations
Random mating
No natural selection
Extremely large population size
No gene flow
63
Natural selection can cause adaptive evolution:
an improvement in the match between organisms and their environment
64
Genetic drift
describes how allele frequencies fluctuate unpredictably from one generation to the next
65
Genetic drift tends to ___ genetic variation through losses of alleles
reduce
66
founder effect
occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population
67
Bottleneck effect
The bottleneck effect is a sudden reduction in population size due to a change in the environment
68
Two examples of genetic drift
founder and bottleneck effect
69
Effects of Genetic Drift (4)
- Genetic drift is significant in small populations
- Genetic drift causes allele frequencies to change at random
- Genetic drift can lead to a loss of genetic variation within populations
- Genetic drift can cause harmful alleles to become fixed
70
Gene flow
consists of the movement of alleles among populations
71
How do alleles move?
Alleles can be transferred through the movement of fertile individuals or gametes (for example, pollen)
72
Gene flow tends to ___ variation among populations over time
reduce
73
Gene flow can decrease ( ) or increase ( ) the fitness of a population
(island’s specific niches), (spreading of resistance)
74
Relative fitness
the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals
75
Three modes of selection
Directional, disruptive, stabilizing
76
Draw the graphs for each mode of selection
L2_The Evolution ... slide 28
77
Adaptive evolution occurs as the match between ___________ increases
an organism and its environment
78
Genetic drift and gene flow do not consistently lead to adaptive evolution because
they can increase or decrease the match between an organism and its environment
79
sexual dimorphism
marked differences between the sexes in secondary sexual characteristics
80
Intrasexual selection
competition among individuals of one sex (often males) for mates of the opposite sex
81
Intersexual selection
often called mate choice, occurs when individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates
82
How do female preferences evolve?
The “good genes” hypothesis suggests that if a trait is related to male health, both the male trait and female preference for that trait should increase in frequency
83
Why Natural Selection Cannot Fashion Perfect Organisms
1. Selection can act only on existing variations
1. Evolution is limited by historical constraints
2. Adaptations are often compromises
3. Chance, natural selection, and the environment interact
84
Evolution is goal orientated (T/F)
F
85
Evolution only happens to populations, not individuals (T/F)
T
86
Micro vs. macroevolution
Micro: consists of changes in allele frequency in a population over time
Macro: refers to broad patterns of evolutionary change above the species level
87
Speciation
Occurs when a group within a species separates from other members of its species and develops its own unique characteristics
88
biological species concept
states that a species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring; they do not breed successfully with other populations
89
Reproductive isolation
the existence of biological factors (barriers) that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring
90
Hybrids
the offspring of crosses between different species
91
Reproductive isolation can be classified by whether
factors act before or after fertilization
92
Types of prezygotic barriers
Habitat isolation, Temporal isolation, Behavioral isolation, Mechanical isolation, Gametic isolation
93
Habitat isolation
Two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers
94
Temporal isolation
Species that breed at different times of the day, different seasons, or different years cannot mix their gametes
95
Behavioral isolation
Courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are effective barriers to mating
96
Mechanical isolation
Morphological differences can prevent successful completion of mating
97
Gametic Isolation
Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species
98
Postzygotic Barriers
Reduced hybrid viability, Reduced hybrid fertility, Hybrid breakdown
99
Reduced hybrid vitability
Genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrid’s development or survival in its environment
100
Reduced hybrid fertility
Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile
101
Hybrid breakdown
Some first-generation hybrids are fertile, but when they mate with each other or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile
102
Limitations of the Biological Species Concept
1. The biological species concept cannot be applied to fossils or asexual organisms (including all prokaryotes)
2. The biological species concept emphasizes absence of gene flow
3. However, gene flow can occur between distinct species
For example, grizzly bears and polar bears can mate to produce “grolar bears”
103
Species concepts (all)
Biological, morphological, ecological, phylogenetic
104
morphological species concept
defines a species by structural features
105
ecological species concept
views a species in terms of its ecological niche
(emphasizes the role of disruptive selection)
106
phylogenetic species concept
defines a species as the smallest group of individuals on a phylogenetic tree
107
Allopatric vs. Sympatric speciation
Allopatric: A population forms a new species while
geographically isolated
from its parent population.
Sympatric: A subset of a population forms a new species without geographic
separation.
108
Types of Sympatric Speciation:
Polyploidy
Habitat differentiation
Sexual Selection
109
Polyploidy
is the presence of extra sets of chromosomes due to accidents during cell division
110
Habitat differentiation
Sympatric speciation can also result from the appearance of new ecological niches
111
Sexual selection
female’s preferences and choice determines selection
112
Polyploidy is much more common in ______ than in ________
Plants, animals
113
autopolyploid
an individual with more than two chromosome sets, derived from one species
114
allopolyploid
a species with multiple sets of chromosomes derived from different species
115
Examples of polyploids
Crops: oats, cotton, potatoes, tobacco, and wheat
116
Examples of sexual selection
Sexual selection for mates of different colors has likely contributed to speciation in cichlid fish in Lake Victoria
117
hybrid zone
a region in which members of different species mate and produce hybrids
118
Hybrids
result of mating between species with incomplete reproductive barriers
119
Three outcomes of closely related species meet in a hybrid zone
reinforcement, fusion, stability
120
punctuated equilibria
periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change
121
Summarize the butterfly picture of punctuated vs. graduated equilibrium
End of slides L3 origins
122
Geographic isolation
allopatric and sympatric speciation
123
Coevolution
the joint evolution of two interacting species, each in response to selection imposed by the other (predator – prey)
124
Adaptive radiation
periods of evolutionary change in which groups of organisms form many new species whose adaptations allow them to fill different ecological roles or niches in their communities (habitat differentiation)
125
Convergent evolution
the evolution of similar, or analogous, features in distantly related groups. Analogous traits arise when groups independently adapt to similar environments in similar ways. Convergent evolution does not provide information about ancestry
126
Conditions on early Earth made
the origin of life possible (simple cells)
1. Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
2. Joining of these small molecules into macromolecules
3. Packaging of molecules into protocells
4. Origin of self-replicating molecules
127
Earth formed about
4.6 billion years ago
128
What prevented seas from forming until around 4 billions years ago
Bombardment of Earth by rocks and ice likely vaporized water
129
Earth’s early atmosphere likely contained
water vapor and chemicals
released by volcanic eruptions (nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen)
130
Replication and metabolism are key properties of life and
may
have appeared together in
protocells
131
Protocells may have formed from
fluid-filled vesicles with a
membrane-like structure
132
The first genetic material was probably DNA, not RNA (T/F)
False
133
The fossil record is biased in favor of species that
Existed for a long time
Were abundant and widespread
Had hard parts
134
The absolute ages of fossils can be determined by
radiometric dating
135
A radioactive “ ” isotope decays to a “
” isotope at a constant rate
parent, daughter
136
Each isotope has a known half-life:
the time required for half the parent isotope to decay
137
Phylogeny
the evolutionary history of a species or group of
related species
138
Systematics
classifies organisms and determines
their evolutionary relationships
139
Taxonomy
the scientific discipline concerned with classifying
and naming organisms
140
Phylogenetic trees do not indicate when
species evolved
or how much change occurred in a lineage
141
