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ASD Senior Year > AP Bio Exam 2 > Flashcards

AP Bio Exam 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Metabolism

A

The entirety of an organisms chemical reactions

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2
Q

Metabolic Pathway

A

Starting molecule (A) -> Reaction 1 -> B …. -> D (product)

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3
Q

Each reaction in a metabolic pathway is catalyzed by an

A

enzyme

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4
Q

Catabolic

A

Releasing energy by breaking down complex molecules into simplier compounds

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5
Q

Anabolic

A

Consumes energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones

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6
Q

Biggest example of a catabolic pathway

A

Cellular respiration
(Sugar glucose and organic fuels are broken down in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide and water)

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7
Q

Examples of anabolic pathways

A

synthesis of an amino acid from simpler molecules and synthesis of a protein from amino acids

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8
Q

Energy

A

The ability to do work

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9
Q

Kinetic energy

A

Energy of motion

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10
Q

Thermal energy

A

Kinetic energy of random movement of atoms or molecules

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11
Q

Heat

A

Thermal energy transfer from one object to another

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12
Q

Light Energy

A

Harnessed in photosynthesis to perform work

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13
Q

Potential energy

A

Energy possessed given a location or structure

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13
Q

Chemical Energy

A

The potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction

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13
Q

Recalling that catabolic pathways release energy from breaking down complex molecule, glucose is

A

high in chemical energy

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14
Q

Thermodynamics

A

Study of energy transformations

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15
Q

Isolated system

A

Unable to exchange either energy or matter with its surroundings as a opposed to open systems

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16
Q

Are organisms isolated or open systems?

A

Open: they absorb energy (light, chemical) and release energy (heat, metabolic waste)

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17
Q

First Law of Thermodynamics (Principle of Conservation of Energy)

A

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed

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18
Q

Second Law of Thermodynamics

A

Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe

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19
Q

Every time an energy transfer occurs

A

the universe becomes more disordered

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20
Q

Entropy

A

A measure of molecular disorder or randomness

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21
Q

The more randomly arranged a collection of matter is

A

The greater the entropy

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22
Q

Spontaneous Reaction

A

A process that leads to an increase of entropy, thus can proceed without requiring an input of energy

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23
Q

Spontaneous =

A

energetically favorable (NOT will occur rapidly)

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24
Q

Examples of spontaneous reactions

A

explosions, rusting

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25
Q

Nonspontaneous

A

A process that leads to a decrease in entropy. requires energy

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26
Q

Water flowing downhill is ________

Water flowing uphill is ________

A

spontaneous

non-spontaneous

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27
Q

The universe is really just

A

the system + the surroundings

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28
Q

Free energy (G)

A

The portion of a system’s energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system

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29
Q

Equation for the change in free energy

A

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

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30
Q

ΔH

A

Change in Enthalpy (total energy)

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31
Q

ΔS

A

Change in entropy

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32
Q

T

A

Absolute temperature (in units K)

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33
Q

-ΔG

A

Spontaneous
(Gives up enthalpy and H decreases) or (TΔS increases) or both

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34
Q

Verbally explain -ΔG

A

Spontaneous processes decreases the system’s free energy

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35
Q

+ ΔG

A

Nonspontaneous

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36
Q

Verbally explain +ΔG

A

Nonspontaneous reactions increases the system’s free energy

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37
Q

Free energy is like a

A

measure of a system’s instability

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38
Q

Unstable systems (higher G) tends to change to become

A

more stable (lower G)

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39
Q

Name three examples of how unstable systems become more stable

A

Gravitational motion (Diver goes from higher to lower altitude)
Diffusion (Molecules of dye disperse)
Chemical Reaction (Glucose is broken down into simpler molecules)

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40
Q

Exergonic Reaction

A

net release of free energy (-ΔG)

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41
Q

Endergonic Reaction

A

Absorbs free energy from its surroundings (+ΔG)

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42
Q

Why is metabolism fundamental to life’s…uh…lifeness

A

It is never at equilibrium!

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43
Q

Energy Coupling

A

Use of exergonic processes to drive an endergonic one

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44
Q

ATP + H2O ->
How much G is released?

A

ADP + Pi
ΔG = -7.3 kcal/mol per mol of ATP

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45
Q

Enzyme

A

A macromolecule (usually proteins here) that acts as a catalyst

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46
Q

Catalyst

A

A chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction

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47
Q

Activation Energy (E sub A)

A

The initial investment of energy to start a reaction

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48
Q

Enzymes cannot

A

change the ΔG of a reaction (make a endergonic reaction exergonic)

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49
Q

Suffix of enzyme name

A

-ase

50
Q

Enzyme-substrate complex

A

When and enzyme binds to its substrate

51
Q

Active Site

A

Location (usually a pocket or groove) where substrate binds to the enzyme

52
Q

How can unideal conditions affect an enzymes efficiency?

A

Temperatures and pH’s outside the ideal for an enzyme can disrupt the bonds between its molecules, thus misshaping the enzyme and its active site

53
Q

Cofactors

A

Non-protein enzyme helpers (can be inorganic or organic)
ex. zinc, iron, copper

54
Q

Coenzyme

A

Organic cofactor
ex. Vitamins

55
Q

Competitive Inhibitor

A

Reduce productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites

56
Q

Noncompetitive inhibitor

A

Binds in different location of enzyme but this interaction causes the enzyme to change shape

57
Q

Allosteric Regulation

A

Any case where a protein’s function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site. Can result in either inhibition or stimulation of activity.

58
Q

Feedback Inhibition

A

A metabolic pathway is halted by the inhibitory binding of its end products to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway

59
Q

Fermentation

A

A partial degradation of sugars that occurs without O2

60
Q

Aerobic respiration

A

Consumes organic molecules and O2 and yields ATP

61
Q

Which is more efficient? Aerobic respiration or fermentation?

A

Aerobic respiration

62
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

Similar to aerobic respiration but consumes
compounds other than O2

63
Q

Cellular Respiration includes what respirations

A

both aerobic and anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to aerobic respiration

64
Q

Aerobic Respiration Summarized Equation

A

Organic Compound + Oxygen -> CO2 + Water + Energy

65
Q

Cellular Respiration Equation

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)

66
Q

Obligate Anaerobes

A

Only function via anaerobic respiration

67
Q

Facultative Anaerobes

A

An organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present, but is capable of switching to fermentation if oxygen is absent.

68
Q

Redox Reactions

A

Reaction where electrons are transferred between reactants (with exceptions)

69
Q

Oxidation

A

Loss of electrons

70
Q

Reduction

A

Addition of electrons

71
Q

Reducing Agent

A

Electron donor

72
Q

Oxidizing Agent

A

Electron acceptor

73
Q

Energy can’t be released all at once in order to be efficient

A

If a gasoline tank explodes, it can’t drive the car very far

74
Q

NAD+

A

A coenzyme that accepts electrons to become the reduced form NADH (becomes an oxidizing agent)

75
Q

FAD

A

A coenzyme that accepts electrons to become the reduced form FADH2 (becomes an oxidizing agent)

76
Q

What is the electron transport chain made of?

A

A number of molecules, mostly proteins, built into the inner membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells

77
Q

Summary of electron transport chain

A

Electrons removed by glucose and placed into NADH and are transferred eventually to O2 along with hydrogen nuclei (H+) forming water

78
Q

Three stages of cellular respiration

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle
  3. Oxidative Phosphorylation
79
Q

Glycolysis
(where does it occur?)

A

Degradation process by breaking glucose into two pyruvate molecules. Located in the cytosol.

80
Q

Citric Acid Cycle
(Where does it occur?)

A

Breakdown of glucose to carbon dioxide is completed. Located in mitochondrion. (in prokaryotes located in cytosol)

81
Q

Pyruvate Oxidation
(Where does it occur?)

A

Pyruvate oxidizes into acetyl CoA. Located in mitochondrion.

82
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

Electron transport chain accepts electrons from coenzymes. Electrons are combined with molecular oxygen and hydrogen ions forming water. Energy released at each step of the chain is stored for the mitochondrion to make ATP from ADP.

83
Q

Inputs and Outputs of Glycolysis

A

Input: Glucose, 2 NAD+, 2 ATP
Output: 2 pyruvate, 2 H2O, 2 NADH + 2H+, 2 ATP (remember 2 ATP were used)

84
Q

Inputs and Outputs of Pyruvate Oxidation

A

Input: 2 Pyruvate, 2 NAD+
Output: 2 NADH + H+, CO2, 2 Acetyl CoA

85
Q

Inputs and Outputs of Citric Acid Cycle

A

Input: 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 Oxaloacetate
Output: 2 ATP, 8 NADH, 6 CO2, 2 FADH2

86
Q

Two stages of oxidative phosphorylation

A
  1. Electron Transport Chain
  2. Chemiosmosis
87
Q

Two stages of glycolysis

A
  1. Energy investment phase (Spends ATP)
  2. Energy payoff phase (ATP is produced)
88
Q

Does glycolysis require oxygen?

A

No, but the energy stored in pyruvate and NADH can be extracted in further steps of cellular respiration which require oxygen

89
Q

Does pyruvate oxidation require oxygen?

A

Yes

90
Q

Does the citric acid cycle require oxygen?

A

Yes

91
Q

Cytochromes

A

The proteins in which electrons are passed down to O2 during oxidative phosphorylation

92
Q

ATP synthase

A

Enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate

93
Q

What is ATP synthase powered by?

A

The proton-motive force: H+ ions

94
Q

Is NADH or FADH2 higher in potential energy?

A

NADH

95
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Organelles that capture light energy and do photosynthesis

96
Q

Autotrophs

A

Sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other living beings

97
Q

Heterotrophs

A

Obtain organic material by second major mode of nutrition

98
Q

Mesophyll

A

Tissue in the interior of a leaf

99
Q

Stomata

A

Microscopic pores by which CO2 enters the leaf and oxygen exits

100
Q

Stroma

A

Dense interior fluid of a chloroplast

101
Q

Chlorophyll

A

Green pigment in chloroplasts

102
Q

Thylakoids

A

Sacs that hold chlorophyll

103
Q

Grana

A

Stacked thylakoids

104
Q

Which wavelengths of light are optimal for photosynthesis?

A

Chlorophyll a: violet-blue and red light work best for photosynthesis

Chlorophyll b: Blue and a little red (but its more of an accessory pigment to broaden spectrum)

Overall: Blue (400-450 nm) and red (650-700 nm)

105
Q

Photosynthesis Equation

A

6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light Energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6 H2O

SIMPLIFIED
Light energy + 6 CO2 + 6 H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6 O2

106
Q

Why is the splitting of water in photosynthesis important?

A

It creates hydrogen and oxygen incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into sugar molecules and releasing oxygen as a by product

107
Q

Two stages of photosynthesis

A
  1. Light Phases (photo)
  2. Calvin Cycle (synthesis)
108
Q

Light Reactions

A

Convert solar energy into chemical energy

109
Q

NADP+ role in photosynthesis

A

Reduce to NADPH and store electrons

110
Q

Phosphorylation

A

Generate ATP from ADP by adding a phosphate group

111
Q

Phases of Calvin Cycle

A
  1. Carbon Fixation
  2. Reduction
  3. Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor
112
Q

Where do light reactions occur?

A

Thylakoids

113
Q

Where does the Calvin cycle occur

A

Stroma

114
Q

C3 plants

A
115
Q

Compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration

A

Both generate ATP by chemiosmosis but use
different sources of energy (Chemical energy from food vs. light energy)

In mitochondria, protons are pumped to the intermembrane space and drive
ATP synthesis as they diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix

In chloroplasts, protons are pumped into the thylakoid space and drive ATP
synthesis as they diffuse back into the stroma

116
Q

Phase 1: Carbon Fixation

A

Involves the incorporation of the CO2 molecules into ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) using the enzyme rubisco

117
Q

Phase 2: Reduction

A

Involves the
reduction and phosphorylation of
3-phosphoglycerate to G3P

118
Q

Phase 3: Regeneration

A

Involves the rearrangement
of G3P to regenerate the initial CO2 receptor, RuBP

119
Q

C3 Plants

A

Follows standard photorespiration. initial product is 3-phosphoglycerate

120
Q

C4 Plants

A

Minimize the cost of photorespiration by incorporating CO2 into
a four-carbon compound

121
Q

CAM plants

A

Open their stomata at night, incorporating CO2 into organic
acids

122
Q

lactic acid fermentation

A

pyruvate is reduced by NADH, forming lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2

123
Q

alcohol fermentation

A

pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps

124
Q

Fermentation consists of

A

glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD+, which can be reused by glycolysis

ASD Senior Year (49 decks)

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