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ASD Senior Year > AP Bio Exam 3 > Flashcards

AP Bio Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Heredity

A

The transmission of traits from one generation to the next

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2
Q

Variation

A

A different combinations in which genetic traits are passed down

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3
Q

Genetics

A

Scientific study of heredity and inherited variation

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4
Q

Genes

A

Hereditary units of coded information

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5
Q

Where is the genetic program encoded in

A

DNA (polymer of four different nucleotides)

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6
Q

Gametes

A

Reproductive Cells

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7
Q

Somatic Cells

A

All cells of the body except gametes

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8
Q

How many chromosomes do humans have

A

46

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9
Q

Locus

A

Location of a specific gene’s location along the length of a chromosome

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10
Q

Describe asexual reproduction

A

A single individual passes copies of all of its genes to its offspring without the fusion of gametes. Creates an exact clone.

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11
Q

Describe sexual reproduction

A

Two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combos of genes.

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12
Q

What happens to chromosomes during mitosis

A

They condense, enough to be visible. Thus, we can distinguish them by size, the position of the centromeres, and the pattern of colored bands

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13
Q

The 46 chromosomes of the human body have

A

Two chromosomes of each 23 types

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14
Q

Karyotype

A

An ordered display of chromosomes

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15
Q

What do homologous pairs share?

A

Same length, centromere position, and staining pattern

(Except for X, Y, chromosomes!)

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16
Q

What is an interesting notice about the X, and Y chromosome?

A

The X is much longer

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17
Q

Sex Chromosomes

A

The X and Y chromosomes that determine your sex

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18
Q

Autosomes

A

All other chromosomes outside of sex chromosomes

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19
Q

The number of chromosomes represented by a single set is denoted by the symbol

A

n

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20
Q

Diploid cell

A

Any cell with two chromosome sets (2n)

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21
Q

Diploid number for humans

A

46 = 2n

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22
Q

What do gametes contain?

A

Haploid cells (n = 23)

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23
Q

Diploid v. Haploid Cells

A

Haploid: Single set of chromosomes
Diploid: double set of chromosomes

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24
Q

Human Life Cycle

A

Two haploids (Sperm, n) and (Egg, n) join to make a diploid zygote (2n)

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25
Q

In the human life cycle, chromosome sets are

A

Halved in meiosis and doubled in fertilization

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26
Q

Somatic v. Gametic

A

Somatic: Diploid developed in mitosis (23 pairs of chromosomes)
Gametic: Haploid, developed by germ cells (23 chromosomes)

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27
Q

Fertilization

A

Fusion of nuclei in gametes

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28
Q

Zygote

A

Diploid made from two unique haploid sets

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29
Q

If gametes aren’t made during mitosis, how are they made?

A

Develop from germ cells in gonads (ovaries and testes)

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30
Q

Meiosis

A

Cell division that reduces the number of sets of chromosomes from two to one in gametes

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31
Q

Alternation of generations

A

Multicellular diploid and haploid stages called sporophyte. Meiosis in the sporophyte produces haploid cells called spores

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32
Q

Differences in sexual life cycles

A

Look at picture

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33
Q

Meiosis has two steps:

A

Meiosis I and Meiosis II

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34
Q

Similarities of Meiosis and Mitosis

A

Preceded by the duplication of chromosomes

During interphase

The way chromosomes segregate

Both the processes occur in the M-phase of the cell cycle.

In both cycles, the typical stages are prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

In both cycles, synthesis of DNA takes place.

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35
Q

Differences of Meiosis and Mitosis

A

Meiosis had two cell divisions instead of one

Four daughter cells (meiosis) vs. two (mitosis)

Genetic content

ONLY Meiosis: homologous chromosomes pairing up, crossing over, and lining up along the metaphase plate in tetrads
At anaphase I: it is homologous chromosomes, instead of sister chromatids, that separate

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36
Q

Allele

A

Different versions of a single gene at a corresponding loci

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37
Q

Prophase I

A

Prophase I: Chromosomes condense, centrosomes move and from spindles, nuclear envelope breaks down

Crossing over occurs: DNA molecules of nonsister chromatids are broken and rejoined

Chiasmata: X-shaped regions where crossovers have occurred

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38
Q

Metaphase I

A

Pairs of homologous chromosome arrange at the metaphase plate, one chromosome of each pair facing a pole

Kinetochores attach

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39
Q

What are the three major sources of genetic variation?

A

Crossing over, independent assortment, and random fertilization

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40
Q

Independent assortments contribution to genetic variation

A

Random orientation of pairs of homologous chromosome at metaphase of meiosis I.
A 50-50 chance of each pair being flipped one way or the other.

Roughly 8.4 million possible combinations of chromosomes

Separation of the homologous chromosomes in meiosis I ensures that each gamete receives a haploid
(1n) set of chromosomes that comprises both maternal and paternal chromosomes.

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41
Q

Crossing Over contribution to genetic variation

A

Crossing over makes recombinant chromosomes. Instead of each chromosome being exclusively paternal or maternal, they’re mixed.

During meiosis I, homologous chromatids exchange genetic material

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42
Q

Random Fertilization contribution to genetic variation

A

Random male and female gamete combinations lead to about 70 trillion types of zygotes.

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43
Q

Who is Gregor Mendel

A

A monk who studied mechanisms of inheritance in pea plants

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44
Q

Why did Mendel choose peas?

A

Distinguishable varieties (white vs. purple flowers, etc.)

Short generation times, and large amount of offspring.

Strict control of mating

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45
Q

True Breeding

A

Offspring only have the same variety of traits as the parent

ex. From purple parent, there is only purple children

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46
Q

Hybridization

A

Crossing two true breeds (ex. true breed white and true breed purple)

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47
Q

P Generation

A

True breed parents
(P for parental)

48
Q

F1 Generation

A

Offspring when P generations are mixed
(First filial)

49
Q

F2 Generation

A

Offspring of either self pollinated or cross pollinated F1 generation

50
Q

Law of Segregation

A

Two alleles for a heritable character segregate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes

51
Q

How did Mendel prove that the blending model is incorrect?

A

He showed that the F1 generation weren’t all pale purple, but rather either white or purple.

52
Q

Mendel’s F2 generations almost always had a

A

3:1 ratio

53
Q

Four parts of Mendel’s Model

A
  1. Alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited characters
  2. For each character, an organism inherits two alleles of a genes, one from each parent
  3. If the two alleles at a locus differ, then one (dominant) determines the appearance, and the recessive does not appear noticeable.
  4. Law of segregation
54
Q

Homozygote

A

Has a pair of identical alleles for a gene (PP or pp)

55
Q

Heterozygote

A

Has two different alleles for a gene (Pp)

56
Q

Phenotype

A

Observable traits

57
Q

Genotype

A

Genetic Makeup

58
Q

Character

A

Category in which there is distinguishable traits
(ex. hair color)

59
Q

Trait

A

The varying types within a character
(ex. blonde, brunette, ginger)

60
Q

Monohybrid

A

Heterozygous in one character ex. Yy

61
Q

Monohybrid Cross

A

Crossing monohybrids (bro be fr)

62
Q

Dihybrids

A

Heterozygous in two different characters
ex. YyRr (crossing them is a Dihybrid cross)

63
Q

Dihybrid cross usually lead to a

A

9:3:3:1 ratio

64
Q

Law of Independent Assortment

A

Two or more genes assort independently. Each pair of alleles segregates independently of any other pair of alleles during gamete formation

65
Q

Multiplication Rule

A

To determine the probability (that two or more independent events will occur together) we multiple the probability of one event by the other event

P(A and B) = P(A) * P(B)

66
Q

Addition Rule

A

The probability that any one of two or more exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding their individual probabilities.

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

67
Q

Complete Dominance

A

Phenotypes of heterozygote and dominant homozygotes are indistinguishable

68
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

Neither allele is completley dominant

69
Q

Codominance

A

Both alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways

70
Q

Pheiotropy

A

Most genes have multiple phenotypic effects

71
Q

Epistasis

A

The phenotypic expression of a gene at one locus alters that of a gene at a second locus
ex. Lab fur color having black or brown pigments, but the gene to have the pigment distributed is different.

72
Q

Quantitative characters

A

Instead of discrete traits in characters, they vary by gradient

73
Q

Quantitative characters usually indicate

A

polygenetic inheritance

74
Q

Polygenetic inheritance

A

An additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character (ex. skin color).
ex. AABBCC (very dark skin) aabbcc (very light), AaBbcC (middleish)

75
Q

Carrier

A

Someone who carries a gene that is not expressed in them, but could be in offspring

76
Q

Chromosome theory of inheritance

A

Mendelian genes have specific loci along chromosomes, which undergo segregation and independent assortment

77
Q

Thomas Morgan

A

Studied fruit flies

78
Q

Wild type

A

Most commonly observed phenotype for a species (red eyes for fruit flies)

79
Q

Mutation phenotypes

A

Phenotypes that differ the normal wild types

80
Q

Distribution of X and Y chromosomes in human gametes

A

All eggs carry one X, while half of sperm have X and half have Y

81
Q

SRY

A

Sex-determining region of Y

82
Q

Sex-linked gene

A

A gene located on either sex chromosome

83
Q

X-linked genes

A

~1100 genes linked to the X chromosome

84
Q

Y-linked genes

A

~78 genes linked to the Y chromosome

85
Q

Barr body

A

The inactive X in each cell of a female that condenses into a compact object which lies on the inside of the nuclear envelope

ex. Discolored patches of tortoiseshell cats, and patches of lacking sweat gland skin in women who are heterozygous

86
Q

Barr body example: cats

A

The early embryo carries an allele for orange fur and an allele for black fur. As cells divide, areas deactivate the black or orange allele, leading to spots of one or the other.

87
Q

Linked Genes

A

Genes located near each other tend to be inherited together

88
Q

Genetic Recombination

A

The production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either P generation parent

89
Q

Parental Types

A

Offspring that match either of the phenotypes of the parents

90
Q

Recombinant Types

A

Offspring that make new combinational phenotypes of parents

91
Q

Where can recombination occur?

A

The independent assortment of chromosomes give independent allele combos

Crossing over creates different allele locations from the original parents

92
Q

Nondisjunction

A

Members of a pair of homologous chromosomes do not move apart properly during meiosis I or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II

93
Q

Aneuploidy

A

If either of an aberrant gametes unites with a normal one in fertilization, the zygote will have an abnormal number of a particular chromosome.

94
Q

Monosomic

A

An aneuploid zygote that has no copy of a particular chromosome
(2n - 1)

95
Q

Trisomic

A

A chromosome present in a triplicate in the zygote (2n + 1)

ex. down syndrome

96
Q

Meiosis I nondisjunction leads to

A

n+1, n+1, n-1, n-1 daughters

97
Q

Meiosis II nondisjunction leads to

A

n+1, n-1, n, n daughters

98
Q

Polyploidy

A

More than two complete chromosome sets in all somatic cells. Common in plant kingdom (3n, 4n, 8n, etc.)

99
Q

Deletion

A

Chromosomal fragments are lost

100
Q

Duplication

A

A Chromosomal fragment attaches to a sister or non sister chromatid

101
Q

Inversion

A

A chromosomal fragment may reattach to the original chromosome but in the reverse orientation

102
Q

Translocation

A

A chromosomal fragment joins a nonhomologous chromosome

103
Q

Where does breakage of a chromosome come from?

A

Errors in meiosis or damaging agents such as radiation

104
Q

What does meiosis result in?

A

Daughter cells with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell.

105
Q

Are the X and the Y chromosomes homologous chromosomes?

A

No, they don’t carry the same type of genetic information

106
Q

What “fundamental result” is shared by all life cycles regardless of type?

A

Genetic variation among offspring

107
Q

What introduces novel (completely brand new) variation into a gene pool?

A

Mutation

108
Q

How many unique gametes can be produced from independent assortment of chromosomes?

A

2^n
(humans, 2^23)

109
Q

Outcome of Meiosis I

A

Two haploid daughter cells

110
Q

Outcome of Meiosis II

A

Four haploid daughter cells

111
Q

Anaphase I

A

Homologous chromosome of each pair separate

112
Q

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

A

Two haploid cells form

113
Q

When do tetrads occur

A

Prophase I

114
Q

When do these occur in Meiosis?
synapsis
crossing over independent assortment
haploid
diploid

A

Synapsis: Prophase I

Crossing Over: Prophase I

Independent Assortment: Metaphase I

Haploid: After Cytokinesis in Meiosis I

Diploid: Meiosis I

115
Q

Three Important Details of Mendel’s experiments

A

Controlling Plant Reproduction: Mendel could always ensure parentage of new seeds

Tracking “either-or” traits: Allowed for clear observation of results

Beginning with true-breeding plants: Ensured he knew what he was starting with

ASD Senior Year (49 decks)

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