Next Step Notes: Psych/Soc Flashcards
moderator variable
a variable that influences the STRENGTH of a relationship between two other variables
mediator variable
one that EXPLAINS the relationship between two other variables.
- a variable that provides a CAUSAL link between two variables that show a statistical relationship
Cross’s Nigrescence Model and three stages.
African-Americans are described as progressing through several stages of cultural awareness. In the first stage, PRE-ENCOUNTER , African-Americans tend to view the majority Caucasian culture as being more desirable and would view a doctor of this race as being MORE skilled.
IMMERSION-EMERSION stage: african americans would view the majority of caucasian cuture with RESENTMENT, and would prefer to be treated by someone their own race.
INTERNALIZATION STAGE: african americans at this stage has integrated aspects of his own culture with that of the majority culture and is working to rectify past racial injustices.
___-___ theory suggest that depression stems from a reduction in the motivating forces of arousal.
DRIVE-REDUCTION
what is a case-control design study
a study that compares information about individuals with a disease against people without the disease or condition
Gestalt’s Law of ___ says that we tend to perceive stimuli as grouped symmetrically around a center point
law of symmetry
gestalt’s law of ___ says that we perceive similar objects aes being grouped together
law of similarity
gestalt’s law of ___ asserts that we tend to perceive objects close to each other in groups, rather than as large collections of individual pieces
law of PROXIMITY
Key part of ethnocentrism
that this superiority-world view is PROPAGATED from one generation to the next through a variety of cultural channels (ex/ family)
reconstructive bias.
type of bias related to memory. Most research on memories suggests that our memories of the past are not as accurate as we think
____ is a negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body
DISTRESS
____ is a positive type of stress that happens when you perceive a situation as challenging, but motivating.
EUSTRESS
___happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn’t actively or directly affect you. For example, news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world may be very stressful, but your body doesn’t perceive that stress as good or bad for you so you aren’t affected.
NEUSTRESS
cannon bard theory of emotion
physiological response AND an experience of emotion occurs SIMULTANEOUSLY
(Causes Both)
James Lang theory of emotion
physiological arousal causes emotion
Schatter Springer theory of emotion
stimulus –> arousal –> cognitive INTERPRETATION –> emotion
parallel play
normal part of behavior in PRESCHOOL children where they play by themselves but observe another child playing. as children reach school age, they are more likely to engage in other forms of play TOGETHER.
4 Piaget stages of child development
1) sensorimotor stage
- development of object permanence
2) preoperational stage (7ish)
- symbolic thinking (things can be represented through symbols such as words or gestures)
- limited by egocentrism (viewing the world only from their own perspective)
3) concrete operational stage (8-12ish)
- begin to understand mathematics
- deductive logic
- achieves CONSERVATION; ex/ wider cup holds the same as taller cup as long as volume is constant between the two.
4) formal operational stage (12+)
- abstract moral reasoning
erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial develpment
0-1 ys: trust vs mistrust 1-3: autonomy vs shame/doubt 3-6: initiative vs guilt 6-12: industry vs inferiorty 12-20: identity vs role confusion 20-40: intimacy vs isolation 40-65: generativity vs stagnation 65+: ego integrity vs despair.
symbolic interactionism
focuses on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in the process of social interactions
Conflict theory
emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. It sees society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and economic resources. Social order is maintained by those with the most power, usually those with the greatest political, economic, and social capital.
Conflict theory asserts that bias and inequality are underlying aspects of education
____ views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out a specific role that enables them to cooperate to maintain social equilibrium for society as a whole
Functionalism.
Functionalist theories assert that aspects of culture are necessary and need-based, and that everything in society works together and can thus affect one another.
___ ___ is the principle that a person’s beliefs and health behaviors should be understood in the context of their own culture.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Folkways
norms that govern everyday behavior (like holding a door open)
taboos
considered unacceptable by almost everyday culture (like incest)
laws
established standards of behavior that are written down and have very clear consequences.
Mores
norms that are deemed HIGHLY necessary to the welfare of society and have CONSEQUENCES if violated.
Health behaviors (like seeking help for an acute medical illness) are standards of behavior that are necessary for the well-being of everyone; if a person does not seek help, they may be shunned by family members or friends. or : It is not considered acceptable or mainstream to abuse drugs, particularly those such as heroine and cocaine.
two types of informal norms
mores and folkways. mores are more important than folkways and have major impact on society and can result in SOCIAL sanctions (like shunning), but is not really “legally/lawfully” inforced.
breaking a folkway or other social norm is termed ___
deviance
what is a retrospective cohort design
A retrospective cohort design takes a group of individuals and asks them about their experiences in the past.
what is a kinship affinity
one in which individuals are related by CHOICE (such as through marriage) rather than through blood.
example of kinship affintiy
A husband and wife merging their children from a previous marriage
T/f: in harlow’s cloth/wire monkey experiment, monkeys with both cloth and wire mothers drank similar amounts and grew similar amounts
true.
____ refers to the breakdown of social bonds, such as social norms, between individuals and communities
anomie
availability heuristic
people make judgments overly based on information that is immediately available to them.
- ex/ their own experiences rather than a bunch of empirical data.
Negativity bias
when the negative aspects of a situation are focused upon, not the good aspects.
representativeness heuristic
tendency to make decisions about actions or events based upon our standard representations of those events.
ex/ the fact that Steve is a librarian, for example, is assessed by the degree to which his is representative of, or similar to, the stereotype of a librarian
In this theory, a physical sensation precedes the emotion.
james lang
In this theory, sensation and emotion are perceived independently.
cannon bard
the cognitive appraisal theory of emotion
ndividuals make different interpretations about stimuli, such as interpreting stigma negatively or non-negatively.
this theory stated that a stimulus first leads to physiological arousal, then a cognitive interpretation of the circumstances, and finally a perception of emotion
Schachter-Singer
____ controls are treatments that are known to have no effect, and ____ controls are treatments that are known to have a certain effect and can therefore be used to assess whether the experimental methodology was sound.
Negative controls are treatments that are known to have no effect, and positive controls are treatments that are known to have a certain effect and can therefore be used to assess whether the experimental methodology was sound.
Explain the relationship between “me” and “ I” in george Meads theories of social identity.
Mead proposed two versions of the self: the “me” and the “I.”
The “me” is the attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one’s social self through role-taking.
The “I” is the part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity.
Essentially, the “me” is the social self and the “I” is one’s response to the “me.” Through socialization, individuals learn to look at the world through others’ perspectives.
self-concept
an individual’s mental model of his or her abilities and attributes.
Self-perception theory
posits that people observe themselves in order to figure out the reasons they act as they do.
Kubler-Ross Model of stages of understanding death
Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance
-death, always brings definite acceptance
primary aging
describes the agining of biological factors and the physical body.
secondary aging
aging that relates to behavioral factors like diet and exercise.
general adaptation syndrome
describes the body’s short-term and long-term reactions to stress.
general adaptation syndrome involved two major systems of the body, the nervous system and the endocrine system.
three distinctive stages in the syndrome’s evolution. He called these stages the alarm reaction (AR), the stage of resistance (SR), and the stage of exhaustion (SE).
House money fallacy
individual risk-taking behavior is affected by prior gains and losses.
-its found that after a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one’s own. This is known as the house money effect.
the mistaken belief that, if something happens more frequently than normal during some period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa.
the Gambler’s Fallacy
For example, someone who bets on red on a roulette wheel because the last 5 spins have all landed on black. This does not match with the reasoning discussed in paragraph 3
Families paying taxes for the education of their children in public schools is an example of:
1) functionalism
2) conflict theory
3) social interactionism
functionalism.
-what the family is doing has a direct effect to a greater body in society: funding school. The funding of schools thus has a bounce back affect on the family: the kids get an education.
in functionalism, everything has apurpose and affects a other aspects of society. in this case, a family paying taxes affects social programs, and the social programs integrity affects the quality of education that the children of the families get.
ratio level of measurement
one in whcih there are a range of QUANTITATIVE RESPONSES, with a possible score of 0.
ex/ number of times a person has been to church in the last month
binary nominal level of measurement
qualitative measure with 2 options (ex/ yes or no)
ex/ do you believe in god
nominal level of measurement
qualitative measurement with multiple options in which 0 cannot be an answer. Numbers can be assigned but have no meaning.
ex/ what type of religion do you identify as?
ex/ “christian” can be ranked 1, “muslim” can e rnked 2 etc. but the numbers have no meaning.
____ measurement. In this level of measurement, the numbers are used to classify the data. Words and letters can be used. Suppose there are data about people belonging to two different genders. In this case, the person belonging to the female gender could be classified as F, and the person belonging to the male gender could be classified as M. This type of assigning classification is nothing but the nominal level of measurement.
_____ level of measurement. This level of measurement depicts some ordered relationship between the number of items. Suppose a student scores the maximum marks in the class. In this case, he would be assigned the first rank. Then, the person scoring the second highest marks would be assigned the second rank, and so on. This level of measurement signifies some specific reason behind the assignment. The ____ level of measurement indicates an approximate ordering of the measurements. The researcher should note that in this type of measurement, the difference or the ratio between any two types of rankings is not the same along the scale.
____ level of measurement. The interval level of measurement not only classifies and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the distances between each interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low interval to high interval. For example, an interval level of measurement could be the measurement of anxiety in a student between the score of 10 and 11, if this interval is the same as that of a student who is in between the score of 40 and 41. A popular example of this level of measurement is temperature in C, where, for example, the distance between 508 C and 510 C is the same as the distance between 100 C and 102 C.
_____ level of measurement. In this level of measurement, the measurements can have a value of zero as well, which makes this type of measurement unlike the other types of measurement, although the properties are similar to that of the interval level of measurement. In the ____ level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the scale have an equivalent distance between them, and the rankings assigned to the items are according to their size.
Nominal measurement. In this level of measurement, the numbers are used to classify the data. Words and letters can be used. Suppose there are data about people belonging to two different genders. In this case, the person belonging to the female gender could be classified as F, and the person belonging to the male gender could be classified as M. This type of assigning classification is nothing but the nominal level of measurement.
Ordinal level of measurement. This level of measurement depicts some ordered relationship between the number of items. Suppose a student scores the maximum marks in the class. In this case, he would be assigned the first rank. Then, the person scoring the second highest marks would be assigned the second rank, and so on. This level of measurement signifies some specific reason behind the assignment. The ordinal level of measurement indicates an approximate ordering of the measurements. The researcher should note that in this type of measurement, the difference or the ratio between any two types of rankings is not the same along the scale.
Interval level of measurement. The interval level of measurement not only classifies and orders the measurements, but it also specifies that the distances between each interval on the scale are equivalent along the scale from low interval to high interval. For example, an interval level of measurement could be the measurement of anxiety in a student between the score of 10 and 11, if this interval is the same as that of a student who is in between the score of 40 and 41. A popular example of this level of measurement is temperature in C, where, for example, the distance between 508 C and 510 C is the same as the distance between 100 C and 102 C.
Ratio level of measurement. In this level of measurement, the measurements can have a value of zero as well, which makes this type of measurement unlike the other types of measurement, although the properties are similar to that of the interval level of measurement. In the ratio level of measurement, the divisions between the points on the scale have an equivalent distance between them, and the rankings assigned to the items are according to their size.
General strain theory
General strain theory holds that individuals who have experienced negative events feel negative emotions, which lead to negative behaviors.
Egocentric bias
tendency to overstress changes between the past and present in order to make oneself appear more worthy or competent than one actually is.
self-serving bias
the tendency to attribute good outcomes with internal factors (ex/ hard work), and ascribe bad outcomes to external factors (boss not giving a raise).
ecological validity
refers to how findings from an experimental setting can be generalized to the environmental considerations in the real world
differential association theory
individuals engage in criminal choices because they are exposed to it, while individuals who don’t commit crimes have not been exposed to this type of behavior.
confabulation
making up memories to fill in gaps and then believing that those memories are true.
T/F: voltage-gated sodium channels have two gates that must be open for sodium to flow inward and depolarize the cell membrane.
TRUE. If the “inactivation gate” is closed, the channels are inactivated. If the inactivation gate is open but the activation gate is closed, the channel is “de-inactivated” — it isn’t inactivated, but it is not yet open either
Implicit vs Explicit attitudes
explicit attitudes are conscious attitudes.
___ ____ is a situation in which a person appears to be a moral person but doesn’t actually try to pursue moral behavior.
MORAL HYPOCRISY
Exchange-rational theory of society
Exchange-rational theory posits that patterns of behavior in societies reflect the choices made by individuals as they try to maximize their benefits and minimize their costs.
3 main aspects of socioeconomic status
occupation, income and education.
main emotion that serotonin regulates
aggression
in addition to emotional regulation, what else does serotonin regulate
appetite.
____ functions are the recognized and INTENDED consequences of any social pattern, while _____ functions are those INRECOGNIZED and unintended consequences
Manifest functions are the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern, while latent functions are those unrecognized and unintended consequences
what is vestibular sense
Awareness of body balance and movement are monitored by the vestibular system. The vestibular senses (the sensations of body rotation and of gravitation and movement) arise in the inner ear; the sense organs are the hair cells that send out signals over the auditory nerve.
motion parallax is a ____ depth cue
monocular depth cue
what is motion parallax
we view objects that are closer to us as moving faster than objects that are further away from us.
name a binocular depth cue
retinal disparity: each of our eyes sees the world from a slightly different angle.
perceptual maladaptation
A trait that is more harmful than helpful
mri measures ____ where as fmri and pet measures ___ and __
mri measures STRUCTURE where as fmri and pet measures STRUCTURE and ACTIVITY
according to the social facilitation theory, people perform differently in the presence of others. people preform ____ on simple or well-rehearsed tasks and ____ on complex or new ones.
Difference between social facilitation and hawthorne effect?
they tend to perform better on simple or well-rehearsed tasks and worse on complex or new ones.
social facilitation is a bit different than hawthorne effect in which a person acts differently when being observed because hawthorne effect is CONCIOUS whereas social facilitation is UNCONCIOUS.
according to Selye’s general adaptation syndrome, people’s response to various stressors is
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