Lec. 2 (critical thinking/research strategies) Flashcards
every goal of psychology requires gathering __________
knowledge
the science of psychology helps us make ____________ conclusions
fact-based
psychology separates _______ and _______
facts and opinions (are NOT the same)
many people believe that _______ and _________ are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature… but its not.
intuition + common sense
intuition and common sense helps, but they are not free of error; they are highly __________, even without realizing it
biased
unreliable way of thinking; biased thought
intuition + common sense
types of Biases (2):
- hindsight bias
- overconfidence
type of bias: “I knew it all along;” after learning the outcome of an event, many ppl believe they could have predicted that very outcome (ex: 9/11); very well documented
hindsight bias
hindsight bias leads to _________ in intuition
overconfidence
T/F: only some people are susceptible to hindsight bias
false (everyone has at least a little bit)
type of bias: sometimes we think we know more than we actually know; all humans tend to do this
overconfidence
what experiment was used to observe overconfidence in humans?
jumbled words challenge
used to get around bias; slowing down your thinking; takes effort
critical thinking
the purpose of RESEARCH in psychology is to examine the world in a _________ and ______ manner
critical + discerning
critical thinking steps/questions (5):
- WHAT am I being asked to believe or accept?
- what EVIDENCE is available to support the assertion?
- are there ALTERNATIVE ways of interpreting the evidence?
- what ADDITIONAL evidence would help to evaluate the alternatives?
- what conclusions are most REASONABLE?
a specific, self-correcting method for ASKING questions and GETTING answers; critical thinking on steroids; standardized way to approach a question and get an answer back
scientific method
components of scientific method
1) theory
2) hypothesis
3) research
4) variables
5) operational definitions
an explanation that can predict behavior or events (ex: “low self-esteem causes depression)
theory
a theory generates a __________
hypothesis
a TESTABLE prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject, or revise a theory (ex: “ppl with low self-esteem are likely to feel more depressed”)
hypothesis
if a hypothesis is unable to be tested, then the _________ was bad
theory
involves administering tests in an attempt to answer a question (ex: give a group of ppl a self-esteem test; measure their self-esteem and level of depression)
research
how you measure a hypothesis; involves variables; a hypothesis must be stated in terms of the operations and methods which will be used to measure it (ex: individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis)
operational definitions
scientific method steps (4):
1) formulate hypothesis
2) gather evidence
3) evaluate evidence
4) determine if hypothesis is confirmed or not
if you’re hypothesis is CONFIRMED, what else should you do (3)?
- replicate findings
- extend findings (in dif. groups)
- test alternative explanations
if you’re hypothesis is UNCONFIRMED, what else should you do (2)?
- reformulate hypothesis
- determine meaning for theory
the research process is ______
constant
research strategies/ways of gathering evidence (4):
- naturalistic observation
- case studies
- surveys
- experiments
each research strategy achieves a different goal of psychology except _________
experiments
research strategy: the process of watching without interfering as behavior occurs in the natural habitat (ex: observing nurses)
naturalistic observation
naturalistic observation is used commonly in _______ studies, but not _________; can still be useful tho
animal; not human
T/F: naturalistic observation can be performed in a lab
false (must be in natural habitat)
ADVANTAGES of naturalist observation (3):
- lots of rich data
- difficult to duplicate in a lab experiment
- gives a more realistic/natural look at behavior
DISADVANTAGES OF naturalist observation
- ppl act differently bc they know they are being observed
- observations can also be distorted if observers expect to see certain behaviors (bias)
which goal does naturalist observation achieve/not achieve if biased?
describe (first goal)
research strategy: an intensive study of a behavior or mental processes in a PARTICULAR individual, group, or situation; often combine observations, tests, interviews, and analysis of written records
case study
case studies are used to examine phenomena that are typically very _______, _______, or _______
rare (ex: multiple personality disorder), new, or complex
examples of rare phenomena that are studied by case studies (2)
- traffic accidents
- airplane crashes
ADVANTAGE of case studies
useful when a phenomenon is new, complex, or relatively rare
DISADVANTAGE of case studies
cases are not necessarily REPRESENTATIVE (might not represent the rest of the population; hard to generalize)
research strategy: asks people about their behavior, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and/or intentions through interviews or questionnaires
survey
surveys can be _______ or _______
interviews or questionnaires
example of survey =
end of class evaluations
research strategy: researcher changes one factor (variable) and measures the effect of this change on another variable
experiment
the CHANGED variable
independent variable
the MEASURED variable
dependent variable
two groups within an experiment:
- experimental group
- control group
group that receives the experimental treatment
experimental group
group that receives no experimental treatment (may be a placebo)
control group
most common research strategy =
experiments (even tho it takes the most effort)
experiments are the ONLY research strategy that can show __________
causality
least common research strategy =
naturalistic observation
2 kinds of statistics used in psychology:
- descriptive
- inferential
type of psych stat: SUMMARY of data; “describes” the data
descriptive statistics
type of psych stat: procedures that allow you to make INFERENCES; a measure of how likely your results were due to “chance;” goes beyond eye-balling
inferential statistics
evaluating the possibility that the observed results represents a real and reliable phenomenon
inferential stats
the likelihood of getting a certain result by random chance has a LOW probability
“statistically significant”
inferential stats looks at whether data is _________ ________
statistically significant
pyschology typically uses the criterion of less than _________ of the p value to be stat. sign.
< 0.05
p < 0.05 = _____% the results are due to chance and _____% of the results are REAL and NOT due to chance
5% chance
95% real
used to compare the means in inferential stats
t-test
a statistic used to describe the strength of a correlation
correlation
correlation coefficient =
r
r (correlations) can vary from ______ to _____
+1 to -1
the actual VALUE of r indicates what?
the strength of the relationship (0-1)
the SIGN of r indicates what?
the direction (positive or negative correlation)
r = 0 meaning
no correlation (no slope)
r = 1 meaning
positive correlation (pos. slope)
r = -1 meaning
negative correlation (neg. slope)
T/F: correlation does NOT apply causation
true (just seems to be related)
when one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two __________
correlate
the actual/absolute value of r can range from:
0-1 (the higher the number, the stronger the correlation)
when a 3rd factor causes the relation between two variables; no REAL causation
spurious correlation
seeing a relationship when none exits; result of BAD science (not stating the question well); bias (ex: frosted flakes and less cancer; arm span correlated w/ intelligence)
illusory correlations
