H - 3.1 -> 3.4 Flashcards
Repentance/Engagement
*2001- Gaddafi condemned 9/11 attacks & Al-Qaeda.
*Libya elected chairman of UN Human Right Commission.
*UN Security Council lift sanctions.
*2004 – US & EU lift trade embargo.
*2003- Renounced possession of WMDs (Iraq invaded forthis reason).
*Tony Blair visit to Tripoli – ‘new relationship’.
*2004- Shell agreement ($550m for gas exploration).
*2004- Apology from Lockerbie.
*2006- Gaddafi removed from US list of state sponsors ofterrorism.
*2009 – prisoner exchange programme with UK – Lockerbiebomber released to Libya.
*2010- EU funding (€50 million) to help tackle illegal migration.
Military Aid
- direct and indirect intervention.
- peacekeeping missions + armed = direct
- money provided from one state to another to buy military environment = indirect
Economic
- Provide / withdraw aid
*Embargoes and sanctions - reduce international trade - Trade – e.g. SAPs, (Structural Adjustment Programmes) deregulation, privatisation
Development aid
- money, technical help or physical supplies provided from one country to another
- aid aims to improve quality of life
Early Success
*Sexuality and wage equality – girls couldn’t marry until 16.
*1970 – law affirming gender equality & equal pay.
1977 Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
*Growth of GDP - $11,000.
*Highest ranked country on HDI.
*Worlds largest irrigation project – GMMR.
*Debt free – oil wealth.
Controversies
*Income spent on arms.
*Sponsored terrorist groups e.g. IRA, Anti-Zionist, (the opposition to ethonationalistand political movement of the Jews), Pan-Africanist, (strengthen bonds between all Africans) Black Civil Rights
*1984 – Death of PC Fletcher – UK severs ties with Libya.
*Lockerbie Bombing of PanAm flight (1988).
Intervention
*The international community (individual countries, or IGOs) can intervene to protect human rights.
*Intervention comes in many forms, with economic and military actions of most interest to us – carrots & sticks.
*If human rights are violated, the international community may decide that they have a right to protect (R2P) and intervene militarily.
*Military intervention is often hard to justify and is more readily applied in some situations than others.
Recent examples also show that military intervention can go disastrously wrong
Libya
- 4th largest country in Africa, with the 10th largest oil reserves in the world.
- Population of 7 million mostly live in urban areas on the Mediterranean coast (Tripoli – 3 million).
- Ruled by Col. Muammar Gaddafi for most of independence– 1969-2011.
- Strained relations with UK and West, then a period of reconciliation in 21st Century.
- 1st Libyan Civil War 2011 – uprising supported by NATO bombing removed Gaddafi.
- 2nd Libyan Civil War (2014-2020) conflict between fragmented gov. – lots of international involvement.
1st Libyan Civil War 2011
*Arab Spring protests in Tunisia spread to N. Africa.
*Protests in Benghazi (East) repressed by army.
*Formation of TNC – support from West.
*UN freeze Gaddafi’s assets & refer him to ICC.
*Military success for Gaddafi – push towards Benghazi.
*March – UN resolution – No Fly Zone
*NATO bombing of military targets.
*Gaddafi offers ceasefire – rebels refuse & bombing campaign continues.
*August – TNC forces capture Tripoli (capital)
*September – TNC recognised by UN as government.
*Gaddafi captured & killed in October 2011.
2011-14
major unrest continues – weak government, factional fighting, collapse of oil exports, weapons.
2nd Libyan Civil War (2014-2020)
*2014 elections contested – TNC/GNC split - 2 governments Tobruk (HoR) & Tripoli (GNA).
*Gen. Khalifa Haftar (LNA) launches attacks on Benghazi – accuses PM of being in thrall of Islamist groups – anti-Islamist stance.
*Conflict between 2 parliaments, LNA, Islamism groups, tribal militia – also intervention from Egypt, Qatar, UAE, Turkey.
*2016- UN backed GNA arrives in Tripoli, LNA seize oil export terminals, Islamic groups beaten.
*LNA advance on Tripoli but held back by UN supported GNA troops.
Haiti
- Haiti EQ in 2010 killed 200k and cost 120% GDP
- NGO aid of 10 billion, but donor fatigue gas set in
- high risk from natural hazard, but terrible governance means still 50k tent communities in Haiti and economy has fallen by 40% since 1980.
- corruption means monopolies operate in the economy and there is very little growth and implementation of aid money is inefficient.
Impact on human rights
*access to healthcare, eradication of poverty, primary education, gender equality and help for those with malaria
*specifically targeted projects, e.g. to improve maternal health, or to build schools
Impact varies, different:
*because of wealth,
*conflict,
*governance,
*location,
* trade opportunities,
*Colonial legacy
*Doesn’t always trickle down to those who need it most
And over time?
*Was more about loans / interest / repayments / debt
*Now: more about technical assistance (expertise / education / technology)
*Aid donations have fallen, and tend to be more specific, e.g. refugees
*More ODA (Humanitarian Aid), e.g. after disaster / civil war, for food / water / shelter / medical care
*Bottom-up project funding is more common, together with local communities and infrastructure
*Welfare ODA might fund education, health care / women’s rights programmes
Various IGOs are involved in human development
*World Bank
*WTO
*IMF
*UNESCO / OECD
Problems with aid
- corrupt governance steal money or bribery
- ineffective governance
Rostow’s Modernisation theory:
Suggested that all countries will develop in the same way and over time:
- traditional society, transitional phase, takeoff, drive to maturity, high mass consumption
- argues through increased i, increased exposure to modernised + western society, societies will become more highly developed
- the presumed goal and model is an industrialised capitalist liberal democracy
- great example could be Singapore
Criticisms of Model
- The model does much to describe how countries may develop, but gives no explanation about how a country can move from one stage to the next.
- It does not address structures in the global economy which disadvantage developing nations
- It implies that the age of high-mass consumption is a desirable goal, but many would argue that such consumption is unsustainable and leads to a range of environmental problems.
- faith in capitalist system + bias to western model as only path
- assumes all countries have equal chance to develop, no regard to site and situational factors of each nation
A.G. Frank - Dependency
- Critical of capitalism – developed countries rich at developing countries’ expense, as they are dependent
- Critical of importing natural / raw materials.
- Critical of world trade – only benefits rich countries.
- periphery (Americas, Asia, Africa) rely on core (west) due to superior economic and military power, seen through modern history from colonialism and slavery to now neocolonialism, where periphery remain dependent on the core.
Core / Periphery
- Core–e.g.EU/USA– manipulate world trade to take advantage of developing nations.
- Periphery – poorer parts of the world, with lower productivity of lower value goods.
Critiquing Frank
- Not all ‘colonised’ countries remained poor.
- Some ‘socialist’ countries are still poor.
- Not all poor countries remained poor.
- Sometimes trade benefits countries, e.g. S Korea.
shell - Niger delta
- Located in Southern Nigeria within nine coastal southern Nigerian states.
- Oil production in all but Cross River state. Since 1975- 75% of Nigeria’s export earnings are from the Delta.
- Very densely population–31million people.
- Ethnically diverse region–40different ethnic groups speaking 250 different dialects.
- Nigerian army deployed since 1988 – to tackle protests by indigenous groups and now responsible for protecting infrastructure (wells, pipelines, refineries).
- Militant groups (MEND being the largest) kidnap oil workers for ransom, sabotage pipelines and steal oil.
Economic Impacts
- Oil and gas amount to 98% of Nigeria’s export revenue.
- 65% of government budget (to cover all gov. expenditure).
- The Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation receives 60% of oil revenues from joint ventures with TNCs.
- High levels of pollution have destroyed fishing and agriculture industries in the Delta.
Environmental Impacts
- Largest wetland in Africa – mangroves, lowland rainforest. Great biodiversity.
- 9,343 oil spills recorded since 2001 (10 in EU since 1980).
- Widespread environmental destruction – complete loss of 7% of mangroves.
- 25-30 years needed to clean-up.
- Gas flaring – more than anywhere else – 40% of Africa’s consumption of gas flared since 2001
Social Impacts
- Ethnic minorities see little benefit from oil.
- Conflict has destabilised region – military & militia impose rules.
- In 2010 the Ogoni received an out of court settlement from the SDPC with 15,000 people receiving $3300 each.
- In 2014, SDPC contributed $14.8 million in scholarships, education programmes and health care across the Delta.
Political Concerns
- 40 ethnic minority groups mean little political representation.
- Yoruba tribe main decision makers in the region – use oil money to retain power.
- Army patrol delta to prevent theft & sabotage – accused of corruption.
- Militant groups (MEND) kidnap oil workers and involved in oil theft.
Libya intervention
In 2011, Gaddafi was Ming Libyan protestors, Arab league has asked for help to protect Libya people. NATO steps in, over 7000 combines and hella air missiles meant the protection of supposedly over 500k lives in Libya, and allowed for protestors to kill Gaddafi.
BUT:
- Libya in way worse state
- same situation in Syria, but not helping - perhaps because Syria has no oil
Malawi aid
- receives NGO aid, has been a lot of success since 1984 to 1998 when the CDC went to Malawi on the USAID project to combat diseases like malaria.
- but country lost about $723 million to fraud and corruption between 09 and 14
- receives over 400 mil a year
Even when case for intervention is very strong, may not occur due to
Lack of consensus:
- NGOS have little power to intervene
- UN has no military forces of its own
- physical geo might make it difficult
- geopolitical considerations may play a factor
Types of aid
- bilateral - one country to another
- multilateral - from IGO like WB - usually a loan
- Aid from NGOs - charities like Christian aid
- emergency aid - short term to cope with a disaster
Motives for aid
- genuine desire to improve human rights and welfare
- political ties
- as a way to gain economic access
- strengthen political alliances
