Chapter 3 Flashcards
Define the nucleus in a cell
It contains DNA and directs cell activities
Define the cytoplasm in the cell
The fluid part of the cell with organelles
What is the function of microvilli?
To increase the surface area, and to have better absorption
Define the plasma membrane in a cell
Gives shape it’s form and separates it from the external environment
What is the function of lipid rafts?
Does cell signaling, transports molecules in and out of the cell, and does cell polarization
What is the function of Cilia?
It moves in unison to create a current that moves substances across the cell surface
What is the function of Kinesin?
It does forward movement toward the plasma membrane in the cytoskeleton (anterograde movement)
What is the function of Dynein?
It does forward and backward movement in the cytoskeleton (retrograde movement)
What is the function of Euchromatin?
It does active transcription and helps with gene expression
What is the function of Heterochromatin?
It silences gene expression due to the inactive regions that is has
What is the function of tRNA?
It delivers amino acids to the ribosomes
What is the function of rRNA?
It reads the amino acids and links them together
What is the function of mRNA?
Carries information from DNA in the nucleus to the cytoplasm (outside of the nucleus)
What are the three molecules that make up a phospholipid?
Phosphate, Glycerol, and fatty acid chains
Which of the three molecules is hydrophobic?
The 2 fatty acid chains
Out of these characteristics determine if they belong to Euchromatins or Heterochromatins
Can be actively transcribed
Cannot be actively transcribed
Condensed
Loosely coiled
Can be actively transcribed- Euchromatin
Cannot be actively transcribed- Heterochromatin
Condensed- Heterochromatin
Loosely coiled- Euchromatin
Which of the three molecules is lipophobic?
Phosphate and glycerol
Which of the molecules interact with intracellular fluid?
Phosphate and glycerol
Which of the molecules interact with extracellular fluid?
Phosphate and glycerol
Out of these characteristics determine if they belong to lysosomes, proteosomes, or peroxisomes.
- Organelle degradation
- Uses catalase to neutralize H2O2
- Uses proteolytic enzymes
- Can be responsible for cell destruction
- Targets lipid oxidation
- Targets misfolded proteins
- Targets viral particles
- Not a true organelle
- Organelle degradation- Lysosome
- Uses catalase to neutralize H2O2- peroxisome
- Uses proteolytic enzymes- Proteosome
- Can be responsible for cell destruction- Lysosome
- Targets lipid oxidation- Peroxisomes
- Targets misfolded proteins- Proteosome
- Targets viral particles- Lysosome
- Not a true organelle- Peroxisome
Out of these cell types determine if they have the ability to transcribe the keratin gene or not (if it is euchromatin or heterochromatin DNA)
skin
pancreas
hair
intestine
fingernail
adipocytes
skin- Euchromatin
pancreas- heterochromatin
hair- euchromatin
intestine- heterochromatin
fingernail- euchromatin
adipocytes- heterochromatin
Determine if these different types of tissues exchange, protect, transport, or are ciliated
Simple squamous epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium with microvilli
Simple squamous epithelium- Exchange
Stratified squamous epithelium- Protection
Simple columnar epithelium- Transport
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium- Ciliated
Simple cuboidal epithelium- Transport
Simple columnar epithelium with microvilli- Transport
Determine if these glands/cells are endocrine or exocrine
Goblet cells
Sweat glands
Pancreatic beta cells
Lacrimal glands
Thyroid glands
Ovary
Pituitary gland
Salivary gland
Mammary gland
Pineal gland
Goblet cells- Exocrine
Sweat glands- Exocrine
Pancreatic beta cells- Endocrine
Lacrimal glands- Exocrine
Thyroid glands- Endocrine
Ovary- Endocrine
Pituitary gland- Endocrine
Salivary gland- Exocrine
Mammary gland- Exocrine
Pineal gland- Endocrine
Where is the location of Areolar, Adipose, Reticular, Dense regular, and Dense irregular connective tissue
Areolar- Beneath the epidermis of the skin
Adipose- Around the kidney
Reticular- The spleen
Dense regular- Ligaments
Dense irregular- Surrounds cartilage in the joints
What do these glands/cells secrete?
Goblet cells
Sweat glands
Pancreatic beta cells
Lacrimal glands
Thyroid glands
Ovary
Pituitary gland
Salivary gland
Mammary gland
Pineal gland
Goblet cells- Mucin (mucus)
Sweat glands- Sweat
Pancreatic beta cells- Insulin
Lacrimal glands- Tears
Thyroid glands- Thyroid hormones
Ovary- Estrogen and progesterone
Pituitary gland- Growth hormone
Salivary gland- Saliva
Mammary gland- Colostrum
Pineal gland- The cerebrospinal fluid
Where is the destination of secretion for these glands/cells?
Goblet cells
Sweat glands
Pancreatic beta cells
Lacrimal glands
Thyroid glands
Ovary
Pituitary gland
Salivary gland
Mammary gland
Pineal gland
Goblet cells- The surface of mucous membranes on organs
Sweat glands- The surface of mucous membranes on organs
Pancreatic beta cells- The bloodstream
Lacrimal glands- The surface of the eyeball
Thyroid glands- The liver and kidneys
Ovary- The fallopian tube
Pituitary gland- The bloodstream
Salivary gland- The mouth
Mammary gland- The alveoli, then it is secreted from the lactocytes
Pineal gland- The cerebrospinal fluid
What are the functions of the plasma membrane? (explain them as well)
- Physical barrier- preserves homeostasis inside the cell
- Regulates exchange between intracellular and extracellular fluid
- Communicates with the external environment- receptors are outside and detect changes
- Provides structure- maintains connections between plasma membranes
Which part of the phospholipid bilayer are hydrophilic and hydrophobic?
Hydrophilic- the head (phosphate and glycerol)
Hydrophobic- The tails (the fatty acids)
How does each side of the plasma membrane interact with lipids?
The fatty acid tails love to react with lipids and the phosphate and glycerol head hate to react with them and are lipophobic
What are sphingolipids?
Help with lipid rafts and have fatty acid tails but the heads are made of phospholipids or glycolipids
What are lipid rafts?
They are groups of proteins and lipids that float freely within the middle of the bilayer
What are the functions of lipid rafts?
- Cell signaling for growth, survival and death
- transports molecules in and out of the cell
- cell polarization
What does cholesterol do in the plasma membrane?
It manages the fluidity in the plasma membrane
What are peripheral proteins?
They attach to other membrane proteins by noncovalent interactions
What does the cholesterol do to the plasma membrane when the temperature gets hot and when it gets cold?
Hot- It doesn’t do much and makes the plasma membrane more fluid and have more movement
Cold- It tightly packs the phospholipids and makes the plasma membrane righter
What are integral proetins?
They are tightly bound to the membrane
What are transmembrane proteins?
The protein chains go all they way through the cell membrane
What are the protein functions in the plasma membrane?
Receptor proteins
enzymes
channels
carrier proteins
recognition proteins
anchoring proteins
What are the functions of
Receptor proteins
enzymes
channels
carrier proteins
recognition proteins
anchoring proteins
Receptor proteins- They are sensitive to ligands binding them to these proteins triggering a response
enzymes- They accelerate reactions in and outside of the cell
channels
carrier proteins- They are gated channels that bind to soluted and transport them across the plasma membrane and uses ATP sometimes
recognition proteins- They are antigens that attach to cells to determine if they are safe cells or foreign cell. And protect the immune system
anchoring proteins- They attach the plasma membrane to other structures outside of the cell
What is lateral and transverse movement?
Lateral movement- phospholipids move freely within the bilayer
Transverse movement- Where the phospholipids flipflop with help of enzymes
What are the 3 different ways transverse movements work?
- The outside phospholipid flips to the inside with the help of flippase
- The inside phospholipid flips to the outside with the help of floppase
- two phospholipids switch places with the help of scramblase
What is glycosylation?
The adding of a sugar molecule to another molecule
What is glycocalyx?
Where a sugar attaches to a glycoprotein or glycolipid that are on the external surface of the cell
What are the functions of glycoproteins and glycolipids?
Helps with cell recognition, receptor functions, and immune response
What is the function of microvilli?
It increases the surface area of the membrane and allows for greater absorption
What is cytoskeleton?
Organized system of microtubules and microfilaments in the cytoplasm that help with movement
What does kinesin and dynein do in the cytoskeleton?
Kinesin - anterograde movement (Forward only)
Dynein- Retrograde movement (forward and backward)
What are microvilli?
They are rigid finger like structures
Where might you find microvilli?
In the intestines
What are cilia?
Long cell surface projections
What is the function of nonmotile cilia?
Fluid sensation
What is the function of motile cilia?
They beat in unison that creates a current to help move them
Where might you find cells with motile cilia? What are they moving?
The respiratory system (trachea), and it is moving up to the throat to swallow the mucous and to keep it away from the lungs
What are flagells?
Single whip like structure that can propel a cell forward
What are proteasomes?
They are protein digesting enzymes
Where might you find a cell with flagellum?
The male reproductive system. SPERM
What is the function of proteasomes?
Disassemble proteins into amino acids and removes bad proteins
How do proteasomes know which proteins to break down?
Ubiquitin tags proteins that are to be digested
What do peroxisomes contain?
They contain a catalase enzyme IT IS A STRUCTURE
What is the function of peroxisomes?
Breaks down the hydrogen peroxide to oxygen and water and neutralizes the cell
What are lysosomes?
They eat bad things and break them down
What are the function of lysosomes? (3)
- Digest old or dead organelles
- degrades engulfed foreign material using endocytosis and exocytosis
- destroys damaged or non-useful tissues with autolysis/apoptosis
What is autolysis/apoptosis?
Cell self-destruction
What happens with we do not have lysosomes?
It can cause Tay Sachs disease which causes nervous system dysfunction which causes blindness and loss of coordination and even death
What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum responsible for?
Produces phospholipids, cholesterol, steroid hormones, glycerides, and glycogen
What is the functions of phospholipids and cholesterol in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
supports growth and maintenance of cell membranes
Where are steroid hormones, glycerides, and glycogen made and stored?
Steroid hormones- reproductive organs
Glycerides- liver cells and adipocytes
Glycogen- skeletal muscle and liver
What are nuclear pores?
allow transport of substrates (like bouncers at a party)
What is the nuclear envelope?
A double layered nuclear membrane which allows for passage of molecules in and out of the nucleus
What is the nucleolus?
dense mass where Ribosomes are made
What are histones?
Proteins that associate with DNA to assist in coiling and uncoiling in gene expression
What are chromatin?
Loosely coiled DNA
What are chromosomes?
Coiled and condensed chromatin
What is the difference between euchromatin and heterochromatin?
Euchromatin- active in transcription, allow molecules access to DNA during gene expression
Heterochromatin- inactive regions, highly condensed a lot of DNA is inactive
What do nucleosomes wrap around?
The histones
What are genome, genes, and proteomes?
Genome- Total genetic info for all 46 chromosomes
genes- the genetic code of people (20,000)
Proteomes- all the proteins produced by the genome (100,000)
How does the genome make 100,00 proteomes? (4)
- RNA cut and spliced in different ways
- alternate polypeptide interactions (getting cut and binding to different polypeptides)
- Carbs or lipids binding to alter function
- Posttranslational modification
What are epigenetics?
Modifications of DNA strands that bring about DNA stability and control gene expression
What is DNA methylation? What happens?
Adding of methyl groups to DNA and it shuts down the DNA
What is histone acetylation/deacetylation?
Acetylation- adds acetyl group which loosens chromatin which promotes genetic transcription
Deacetylation- removes acetyl group and represses gene transcription
What is histone methylation?
It activates or represses transcription
What does helicase and DNA polymerase do?
Helicase- It breaks hydrogen bonds between DNA strands
DNA polymerase- binds new DNA strand to the original strand
What happens in the G1, S, and G2 phases in the cell cycle?
G1- Growth and normal metabolic roles
S- DNA replication
G2- Growth and preparation for mitosis, proof reads DNA
What happens in the prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis in mitosis?
Prophase- Chromosomes become visible and spindle fibers form
Metaphase- Chromosomes line up in the center of the cell and attach to the spindles
Anaphase- Centromeres split as the spindle fibers shorten and pull chromatids apart
Telophase- The cell begins to split
Cytokinesis- they completely split
What is the difference between necrosis and apoptosis?
Necrosis- cell dies pathologically due to lack of oxygen. The cell membrane bursts and cell goes everywhere
Apoptosis- It is programmed cell death by an enzyme called caspases. The cell membrane does not burst and macrophages come to clean it up
What happens to chromosomes as we get older? And why?
They lose the ability to divide because telomeres get shorter and shorter and the chromosomes cannot divide without their telomeres
What are two components of extracellular matrix?
Proteoglycans, insoluble protein
What are Proteoglycans, and insoluble protein?
Proteoglycans- Glycoproteins that are bonded to the polysaccharide chains
insoluble protein- fibers such as collagen provide strength and anchor cells to the matrix
What is the function of extracellular matrix?
Helps with growth and development to cell death and uses it to communicate with their external environment
What are gap junctions (communication junctions?
Interlocking transmembrane proteins provide a channel which allows ions to pass through for cell communication
What are tight junctions? (Occluding junctions)
Interlocking membrane proteins create a barrier between cells to prevent leakage
What are desmosomes? (anchoring junctions)
link plasma membranes together that make them durable and flexible found in skin cells
What is cellularity, polarity, attachment, avascular, and regeneration in epithelial tissue?
cellularity- Cells connected by junctions and not a lot of extracellular material
polarity- apical and basal surfaces have different structures
attachment- the base is bound to the basement lamina
avascular- No blood vessels, it receives nutrients from surrounding tissues
regeneration- Cell division occurs at a higher rate than other tissues
Define theses functions that the epithelial tissue do
Protection
Permeability control
Sensation
Secretions
Protection- From abrasion, dehydration, chemicals and other environmental factors
Permeability control- Controls what passes through, can change due to hormones, stress, etc.
Sensation- Large sensory nerve supply that provides info about the external environment (smell, tast, sight, hearing)
Secretions- gland cells secretions for protection or to act as messengers
Where is the location and function of simple squamous epithelium?
Location: Capillary walls, wall of the alveoli in the lungs
Function: Allows substance to diffuse through easily, gas exchange, substances to be filtered between cells
Where is the location and function of Simple cuboidal & Simple columnar epithelium?
Location: Kidney tubules, intestinal lining
Function: Absorption (movement of material from outside to inside)
Secretion (movement in the opposite direction of absorption from inside to outside)
Where is the location and function of Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium?
Function: Protection, secretion of mucus, movement of the mucus by cilia
Location: Most of the respiratory tract (nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi)
Where is the location and function of stratified squamous epithelium?
Location: For keratinized (epidermis of skin)
Non-Keratinized (lining of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, anus and vagina)
Function: Provides physical protection to underlying tissues
What is keratinization in stratified squamous epithelium tissue?
Epithelial tissue is strengthened, more protected, and has more structure by the production of keratin protein
Where is the location and function of secretory epithelium?
Location: glands, on other epithelial cells, or form a gland
Function: secretion of substances, produce a substance to be secreted into the extracellular space
What is the definition of glands?
An epithelial cell or organ that secretes substances for use elsewhere in the body or used for waste
What is the difference between secretion and excretion?
Secretion: sends hormones and stuff to different body parts
Excretion: gets rid of waste products
What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?
Exocrine: secretes substances into a duct
Endocrine: secretes substances into the blood
How can connective tissue be distinguished?
It has few cells and contains a lot of extracellular mass
What does connective tissue consist of?
Fibroblasts (the most common), and protein fibers (collagen and elastin most common)
What are the two components that make up a nucleosome?
Histones and chromatin
What are CAMs protein?
They are proteins on the outer part of the cell (the cell membrane) that help with cell to cell adhesion and help cells communicate
Where are simple columnar epithelium with microvilli located?
The apical surface of a cell (intestines)
What are the functions of connective tissues? (7)
binding of organs
support
physical and immune protection
movement
storage
heat production
transport
What is the structure and location of loose areolar connective tissue?
Structure: gel-like matrix with many fibers and cells
Location: beneath the surface of the dermis and epithelial tissues that have openings to the environment
What is the function for loose areolar connective tissue? (7)
Holds tissue fluid
Absorbs shock
Protects underlying muscle
allows muscle to contract without pulling on the skin
Good blood flow
allows gas exchange
immune function
What is the structure, location, and function of loose reticular connective tissue?
Structure: Reticular fibers create stroma, a support structure to the parenchyma
Location: Spleen, bone marrow and liver (soft tissues)
Function: Supporting framework
What is the structure, location, and function of dense regular fibrous connective tissue?
Structure: collagen fibers parallel and lined up with direction of applied force
Location: Tendons and ligaments
Function: provides strong point of attachment, resists tough mechanical forces from 2 directions
What is the difference between white fat and brown fat in adipose tissue?
White fat: Pale yellow regular fat found in adults
Brown fat: increases vascularization and found in children because it uses it to increase metabolism for heat production
What is the structure, location, and function of dense irregular fibrous connective tissue?
Structure: it is collagen with an irregular pattern
Location: dermis layer of the skin, around the liver and kidneys, surrounds cartilage of joints, and surrounds bone
Function: strengthen and support areas that have a lot of stress on them from many directions
Define these characteristics about cartilage
cells
matrix
avascular
functions
cells- chondrocytes
matrix- firm but flexible matrix
avascular- no blood flow, nutrients and waste exchange by diffusion
functions- cushion, support, flexibility, reduces friction, immobility
What is the structure, location, and function of adipose tissue?
Structure: They are fat droplets that account for the majority of volume in a cell
Location: under the skin (the butt), around kidneys, eyeballs, in bones, in abdomen and breasts
Function: fat storage, insulates against heat loss, cushions and protect organs
Define these characteristics about bone
cells-
matrix-
location-
vascular-
functions-
cells- osteocytes
matrix- hard matrix made of calcium salts, and flexibility die to collagen
location- skeletal system
vascular- caple for repair, gets blood flow to it
functions- supports and protects, provides levers for muscles to act on, stores calcium, fat and other things, forms blood cells
Define these characteristics about blood
cells
matrix
location
function
cells- red and white blood cells, platelets
matrix- fluid matrix called plasma
location- blood vessels and heart
function- transports nutrients, waste, gases, hormones, immunity
Define/describe the four different membranes
- mucus
- serous
- cutaneous
- synovial
- mucus- It lines the body tracts that have openings to the external environment. It keeps an organ warm, clean, and moist
- serous- It is simple squamous epithelium that line and cover organs and closed body cavities
- cutaneous- It is skin consisting of stratified squamous epithelium, areolar connective tissue and it underlies dense irregular connective tissue. THICK AND WATER RESISTANT
- synovial- Fibrous fluid filled capsule surrounded by synovial membranes. Synovial fluids lubricate joints.
What are the 4 different types of membranes?
- mucus
- serous
- cutaneous
- synovial
Which of these organelles contribute to the different types of degradation Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, Proteosomes
Neutralize free radicals
Autolysis
Degradation of old organelles
Destruction of bacteria
Dysfunctional protein degradation
Removal of non-useful tissue
Contains catalase
Responds to ubiquitinated proteins
Neutralize free radicals- Peroxisomes
Autolysis- Lysosomes
Degradation of old organelles- Lysosomes
Destruction of bacteria- Lysosomes
Dysfunctional protein degradation- Proteosomes
Removal of non-useful tissue- lysosomes
Contains catalase- peroxisomes
Responds to ubiquitinated proteins- proteosomes
What is the areolar component of the mucous membrane?
The lamina propria
What are/is the order of the organelles that help with protein production? (5)
- Nucleus
- Ribosomes
- Rough ER
- Golgi apparatus
- vesicles
what are the three functions the Rough Endoplasmic reticulum do in respect to protein synthesis?
- Posttranslational modifications on proteins
- folding of proteins
- Sorting of proteins
What are the 3 ways the golgi apparatus transports proteins?
- integrates the proteins to the plasma membrane
- exocytosis and endocytosis
- by vesicles
What is metaplasia in different tissue types?
(a change from one type of mature tissue to another) CAN REVERSE
What is Dysplasia in different tissue types?
(an increasing degree of disordered growth of the tissue CAN REVERSE
What is Neoplasia in different tissue types?
( is the development of a tumor) CANNOT REVERSE
What is atrophy? and give an example
A decrease in size of an organ or tissue
Example: When a limb is immobilized the skeletal muscle cells don’t move so they decrease in size
What is hypertrophy? and give an example
An increase in size of an organ, structure, or body due to growth
Example: Where the skeletal muscle cells get bigger in size due the strength training and accumulation of protein
What is hyperplasia? and give an example
An increased cell production in a normal tissue or organ
Example: When you are pregnant more milk cells are made to breastfeed the baby
What is the role of carbs in the plasma membrane?
It helps with cell recognition and protecting the cell
What is the common feature in the 4 different types of membranes?
1. mucus
2. serous
3. cutaneous
4. synovial
- They all provide a barrier and lining in different parts of the body
- They all consist of epithelial tissue
what characteristics of epithelial tissue are different from connective tissues
Epithelial tissue- it lines and covers organs and skin, and it has a lot of cells but no extracellular space
Connective tissue- it binds tissues and supports organs and it has a lot of extracellular space but not a lot of cells
