Chapter 2 Flashcards
What is the definition of atoms?
The smallest stable units of matter, the building blocks of all living and non-living things
What is the definition of atomic number?
The number of protons in each atom
Do protons, neutrons, or electrons determine the atomic number?
Protons
What needs to happen for an atom to be electrically neutral?
Protons and electrons need to be equal
What is the mass number of an atom?
The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
What is an isotope?
Atoms that are the same element BUT have different number of neutrons
How many electrons are in the first, second, and third energy levels?
First- max of 2 electrons
Second- max of 8 electrons
Third- max of 8 electrons
What is the valence shell?
The outermost energy level
What are valence electrons?
Electrons that are in the outermost energy level
How do atoms become stable?
When the valence shell (the outermost shell) has the maximum number of valence electrons in it. `
What is more important. Stability or neutralization?
Stability
What is an ion?
Atoms that give or take valence electrons which results in charged atoms/molecules
What are covalent bonds?
When valence electrons are shared and form strong bonds that build molecules
What are high energy electrons?
Valence electrons of certain atoms that capture energy from the environment and transfer the energy to other atoms
What are free radicals?
Unstable molecules due to unpaired valence electrons
Where are the protons, neutrons, and electrons located?
Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and electrons are going around the nucleus
What are the functions of protons, neutrons, and electrons?
Protons: Identity of the atom, attract electrons, the mass of the atom
Neutrons: Mass of an atom
Electrons: Bonding capabilities
What are covalent bonds?
When electrons are shared evenly between atoms
What is low electronnegativity?
Where the atomic numbers of each atom are equal or close to equal in a nonpolar covalent bond
Are non polar covalent bonded molecules soluble in water?
No because of the lack of charge
What are polar covalent bonds?
Electrons that are shared between atoms unequally. (shared equally put some electrons lean to one side bc of eletronnegativity)
What is high electronegativity?
The atomic numbers of each atom are unequal in a polar covalent bond
Are polar covalent bonded molecules soluble in water?
Yes due to the charged polar ends of the molecule
What are the different traits of water? (5)
Water is a polar molecule
Water can form hydrogen bonds
Water is a solvent
Water is reactive
Water has a high heat capacity
Explain the different traits of water? (5)
Water is a polar molecule- it creates cations and anions
Water can form hydrogen bonds- There is none that is it
Water is a solvent- substances can be dissolved in water resulting in a solution
Water is reactive- Allows chemical reaction to occur
Water has a high heat capacity- absorbs a great deal of heat before the temperature begins to rise or it is released
What are hydrogen bonds?
It is a weak attraction that is caused by a slight positive charge
What is surface tension?
Hydrogen bonds to create a barrier that keeps small objects from entering the water
What are some examples of water tension?
Water tension in eyes, bug walking on water, fluid in lungs
What are ionic bonds?
When an electron is lost or gained between two atoms. (one atom loses an electron while the other atom gains the electron)
What substances do ionic bonds form?
Salts, Acids, Bases
What is oxidative stress?
The buildup of free radicals in the body which may lead to cancer, heart disease, and aging
What are antioxidants?
Molecules that safely interact with free radicals, which neutralize them before vital molecules are damaged
What are endogenous free radicals?
Derived from natural body metabolism
What are exogenous free radicals?
Derived from external sources
What are some examples of endogenous antioxidants?
Superoxide dismutase, glutathione, glutathione reductase, catalase
What are some examples of exogenous antioxidants?
Vitamins A, C, E, Carotenoids, Polyphenols
What is an ion?
An atom that has an unequal number of electrons and protons that create a charge
What is a cation?
An ion with a positive charge (more protons than electrons)
What is an anion?
An ion with a negative charge (more electrons than protons)
What is ionization?
The breaking of bonds that separate anions from cations
What are van der waals forces?
Weak nonspecific attractions between the nucleus of atom and the electrons of nearby atoms
What are hydrophobic interactions?
Non-polarity of molecules can drive them to assemble into anhydrous domains in aqueous solution
What are the differences between acids and bases?
Acids- It has more hydrogens and a lower pH level, Proton donor, H+
Bases- It has less hydrogens and a higher pH level, Proton acceptor, OH-
What does proton donor and proton acceptor mean?
Proton donor- Donates a H+ ion
Proton acceptor- Has an OH- and accepts the H+ ion
How can you tell an atom is an acid or a base?
Acid- It has a H in the front
Base- A base has an OH in it
Are pH levels for acidic solutions below 7 or above?
Below 7
Are pH levels for alkaline (basic) solutions below 7 or above?
Above 7
What is the pH level for intracellular fluid?
7
What is the pH level for blood?
7.35-7.45
What is the pH level for stomach acid?
1-2
What is the buffer system?
Chemicals that minimize changes in pH by reacting with strong acids or strong bases
What are on the ends of organic compound chains?
any type of functional groups
Why do we need isomers?
Because they have different enzymatic functions. Different enzymes breakdown different isomers because they are rearranged/composed differently.
What are isomers?
Molecules that have the same type of atoms but the order of them get changed or switched up
What are the 4 types of organic compounds?
- Carbs
- Lipids
- Protein
- Nucleic Acids
What are the building blocks (simplest form) of Carbs, Lipids, Protein, Nucleic Acids?
Carbs- Monosaccharides
Lipids- Fatty acids
Protein- Amino acids
Nucleic Acids- Nucleotides
What are the molecules made from the building blocks (examples_ in Carbs, Lipids, Protein, Nucleic Acids?
Carbs- Glucose
Lipids- Butter (saturated fatty acid)
Protein- Histidine
Nucleic Acids- Adenine
What are the functions of Carbs, Lipids, Nucleic Acids?
Carbs- Source of energy
Lipids- Control what goes in and out of the cell, stores energy, and is the second energy source to carbs
Nucleic Acids- They store and process information within the cell
What are monosaccharides?
Building blocks of carbs, single sugar compound
What are some examples of monosaccharides and their function?
Glucose- used as food for cellular respiration
Fructose- converted to glucose to use for energy production
What are disaccharides?
Sugars consisting of 2 monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds
What are some examples of disaccharides and their function?
Sucrose- table sugar, consists of one fructose and on glucose
Lactose- milk sugar, consists of one glucose and one galactose
What are polysaccharides?
Made of thousands of glucose molecules
What is starch?
Plant storage of sugar
What is glycogen?
Sugar storage in an animal cell
What is cellulose?
Makes up cell walls of plants, it is fiber and humans cannot digest it
What is Chitin?
It forms the exoskeleton of arthropods
What is glycogen?
A branched chain of glucose which is our stored energy
Where is glycogen stored?
In the liver and skeletal muscles
What happens when cells need energy?
The glycogen in the liver is broken down and glucose is released in the bloodstream
How are bonds created between monosaccharides?
By dehydration synthesis
What is it called when the bond between disaccharides is broken?
Hydrolysis
What is hydrolysis?
It is when water is added and it destroys the bond
What is dehydration synthesis?
It is when water is taken away between two monosaccharides to form the bond together
Why is a fatty acid considered non polar?
because of its nonpolar hydrocarbon chains and rings that make them hydrophobic
What is a fun fact that we need to know about lipids?
They carry twice the amount of energy than carbs
Is the polar carboxyl end in lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
hydrophilic
Is the non-polar hydrocarbon end in lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
hydrophobic
What is the difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic?
hydrophobic- Hates water
hydrophilic- Loves water
What are the differences between saturated and unsaturated fats?
Saturated- only had single covalent bonds, and allows maximum hydrogen bonding, solid fats
Unsaturated- has one or more double bonds, which binds with less hydrogen, liquid fats
What are hydrogenated fats?
It turns a liquid (unsaturated fat) into a solid fat by adding hydrogen
What are trans fats?
Artificially produced straight-chained fatty acids, hydrogens are altered in position
There are 3 types of omega-3 fatty acids. From what foods is each-derived? (extra credit question)
Eicosapentaenoic, Docosahexaenoic, alpha linolenic
Eicosapentaenoic - Fish and fish oils
Docosahexaenoic- Fish and fish oils
Alpha Linolenic- Seed oils
Where does the body incorporate omega-3/omega-6 fatty acids and what benefit do they provide in this location? (extra credit question)
They are incorporated into cell membranes in all tissues of the body. Anti inflammatory effects, adhesion proteins, gene expression, and membrane protein activity
How do omega-3 fatty acids benefit the blood vessel walls? (extra credit question)
They help the blood vessel wall avoid stiffness and keep that elasticity that is needed to live long and healthy. And slow the plaque build up in them
How do omega-3 fatty acids benefit the immune system? (extra credit question)
They strength the cells walls, help with strong immune response, help macrophages eat the bad stuff
How do omega-3 fatty acids benefit the heart? (extra credit question)
They reduce triglyceride levels and reduce irregular heartbeats, and slows plaque build up in the heart
How do omega-3 fatty acids benefit the eyes? (extra credit question)
Reduces the pressure in your eye, improves the production of the eyes oil which improves dry eye syndrome
What are glycerides?
Fats that can attach to a simple sugar
What are monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides made of?
Mono- 1 fatty acid 1 glycerol
Di- 2 fatty acids 1 glycerol
Tri- 3 fatty acids 1 glycerol
What is protection in triglycerides?
It provides cushion to protect organs (kidney)
What are some functions of mono/diglycerides?
Friction reduction- emulsifiers
immunity- antiviral, antibacterial
membrane structure- phospholipids
chemical messengers- enzymes, paracrine factors
What is the energy source for triglycerides?
fatty acids broken down to provide energy
What is insulation in triglycerides?
Fat deposits slow heat loss
What are lipid soluble vitamins in triglycerides?
A, D, E, and K which dissolve in fat droplets within the cells
Are the heads of a phospholipid hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
hydrophilic
Are the tails of a phospholipid hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
hydrophilic
What are micelles and liposomes?
Micelles- It is a small aggregate of phospholipids caused by hydrophobic interactions. It carries hydrophobic drugs
Liposomes- artificial vesicle composed of lipids that can surround an aqueous droplet. It carries hydrophilic drugs
What are the 7 functions of a protein?
Protein- support, movement, transport, buffering, metabolic regulation, coordination and control, defense
What are some drug examples that micelles and liposomes carry?
Micelles- Chemotherapies
Liposomes- Shingrix vaccine
Categorize these different types of molecules into these 4 groups. 1. Carbs, 2. Lipids, 3. Proteins, 4. Nucleic acids
Glycogen
Cholesterol
Enzymes
ATP
Glucose
Ribonucleic acid
Glycerides
Phospholipids
Cellulose
Micelle
Antibodies
Lactose
Steroids
NAD
Polypeptide
Glycogen- carbs
Cholesterol- lipid
Enzymes- protein
ATP- nucleic acid
Glucose- carb
Ribonucleic acid- nucleic acid
Glycerides- lipid
Phospholipids- lipid
Cellulose- carb
Micelle- lipid
Antibodies- protein
Lactose- carb
Steroids- protein
NAD- nucleic acid
Polypeptide- protein
What is a protein made of?
Amino group
Central carbon
Carboxyl group
R group
What is a peptide bond?
It is a bond between amino acids
How many amino acids are in Dipeptide, Tripeptide, and Polypeptide?
Dipeptide - Chain of 2 amino acids
Tripeptide- Chain of 3 amino acids
Polypeptide- Chain of many amino acids
What are the N terminus and the C terminus in a protein?
N terminus- amino group of an amino acid at the end of the peptide
C terminus- Carboxyl group of an amino acid at the opposite end of the N terminus
How does a peptide bond form?
One end of the amino acid forms (N terminus) with the carboxyl group of the other amino acid by dehydration reaction (the loss of water molecule)
What is the primary structure in proteins?
It is just the sequence of amino acids together
What is the secondary structure in proteins?
It is created by hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains. And covalent bond angles between amino acids determine the secondary structure
What is the tertiary structure in proteins?
It is the 3D structure of proteins
What is quaternary structure in proteins?
It is multiple subunits of proteins that combine with non covalent bonds
How do antigens and antibodies interact?
So each antibody contains a paratope. And each antigen contains an epitope. So the epitope of an antigen binds to the paratope of the antibody so that the antibody can get rid of the antigen. So our body doesn’t get sick.
What are antibodies?
They are Y shaped proteins produced by B cells in the immune system that respond to antigens
If the paratope of an antibody mutated. Why would correct protein structure be important?
So that no matter what happens the protein can continue to work and function properly to neutralize the antigen.
What are glycoproteins, and lipoproteins and an example of both?
Glycoprotein- Protein + carb, some hormones in the cell membrane
Lipoprotein- Protein + lipid, in the cell membranes and carries molecules to the blood
What are nucleic acids made out of? (3)
- Nitrogenous base
- Pentose sugar
- Phosphate group
What are all the nitrogenous bases?
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
Uracil
Which nitrogenous bases are in DNA? and Which ones are in RNA
DNA- A,G,C,T
RNA- A,G,C,U
What nitrogenous bases pair together in DNA and RNA?
DNA- A-T, G-C
RNA- A-U, G-C, T-U
What is the backbone of the nucleic acid molecule (OF DNA AND RNA)?
The sugar phosphate sequence
What does the nitrogenous bases carry within DNA (the A,G, T, C)?
The information for protein synthesis
What are the real names for DNA and RNA?
DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA- Ribonucleic acid
How many nucleotide chains are in DNA and RNA?
DNA- Double stranded
RNA- single stranded
What is the sugar in DNA and RNA?
DNA- Deoxyribose
RNA- Ribose
What is the function of DNA and RNA?
DNA- Forms the genetic material making up our chromosomes within the nucleus, provides instructions for building protein in the body
RNA- Synthesized by DNA, and carries out protein synthesis
What is AMP in RNA?
A substrate with potential to create a high energy compound
What is ADP in RNA?
created by ATP and has 2 phosphate groups
What is ATP in RNA?
Made by ADP, It is the high energy compound derived from nucleotides
What is phosphorylation and dephosphorylation?
phosphorylation- Attachment of a phosphate group to a molecule
dephosphorylation- Removal of a phosphate group from a molecule
What are the functions of the nucleotides ATP, ADP, NAD, and FAD?
Energy capture and transfer
What is the function of the nucleotide cAMP?
Cell to cell communication
What happens to NaF when it is ionized?
The NA gives an electron to F and the NA turns into NA+ and the F turns into F-
Why is ionization necessary in the body?
So other molecules can take part in other chemical reactions that the body needs charged ions for
Why are the following considered “attractions” and not bonds: hydrogen bonding, Van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions
Because their interactions/pull toward each other are so weak they are considered attractions and not bonds
Why are micelles and liposomes important in clinical settings?
Because they improve drug delivery to cells in out body
why is carbon essential in organic compounds?
Because it has the ability to form stable bonds with many different types of elements
How do we get ATP from phosphorylation?
adding of the phosphate group which charges it up and makes ATP
