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Physiology lecture > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the definition of atoms?

A

The smallest stable units of matter, the building blocks of all living and non-living things

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2
Q

What is the definition of atomic number?

A

The number of protons in each atom

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3
Q

Do protons, neutrons, or electrons determine the atomic number?

A

Protons

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4
Q

What needs to happen for an atom to be electrically neutral?

A

Protons and electrons need to be equal

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5
Q

What is the mass number of an atom?

A

The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus

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6
Q

What is an isotope?

A

Atoms that are the same element BUT have different number of neutrons

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7
Q

How many electrons are in the first, second, and third energy levels?

A

First- max of 2 electrons
Second- max of 8 electrons
Third- max of 8 electrons

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8
Q

What is the valence shell?

A

The outermost energy level

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9
Q

What are valence electrons?

A

Electrons that are in the outermost energy level

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10
Q

How do atoms become stable?

A

When the valence shell (the outermost shell) has the maximum number of valence electrons in it. `

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11
Q

What is more important. Stability or neutralization?

A

Stability

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12
Q

What is an ion?

A

Atoms that give or take valence electrons which results in charged atoms/molecules

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13
Q

What are covalent bonds?

A

When valence electrons are shared and form strong bonds that build molecules

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14
Q

What are high energy electrons?

A

Valence electrons of certain atoms that capture energy from the environment and transfer the energy to other atoms

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15
Q

What are free radicals?

A

Unstable molecules due to unpaired valence electrons

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16
Q

Where are the protons, neutrons, and electrons located?

A

Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and electrons are going around the nucleus

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17
Q

What are the functions of protons, neutrons, and electrons?

A

Protons: Identity of the atom, attract electrons, the mass of the atom

Neutrons: Mass of an atom

Electrons: Bonding capabilities

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18
Q

What are covalent bonds?

A

When electrons are shared evenly between atoms

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19
Q

What is low electronnegativity?

A

Where the atomic numbers of each atom are equal or close to equal in a nonpolar covalent bond

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20
Q

Are non polar covalent bonded molecules soluble in water?

A

No because of the lack of charge

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21
Q

What are polar covalent bonds?

A

Electrons that are shared between atoms unequally. (shared equally put some electrons lean to one side bc of eletronnegativity)

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22
Q

What is high electronegativity?

A

The atomic numbers of each atom are unequal in a polar covalent bond

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23
Q

Are polar covalent bonded molecules soluble in water?

A

Yes due to the charged polar ends of the molecule

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24
Q

What are the different traits of water? (5)

A

Water is a polar molecule
Water can form hydrogen bonds
Water is a solvent
Water is reactive
Water has a high heat capacity

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25
Q

Explain the different traits of water? (5)

A

Water is a polar molecule- it creates cations and anions
Water can form hydrogen bonds- There is none that is it
Water is a solvent- substances can be dissolved in water resulting in a solution
Water is reactive- Allows chemical reaction to occur
Water has a high heat capacity- absorbs a great deal of heat before the temperature begins to rise or it is released

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26
Q

What are hydrogen bonds?

A

It is a weak attraction that is caused by a slight positive charge

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27
Q

What is surface tension?

A

Hydrogen bonds to create a barrier that keeps small objects from entering the water

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28
Q

What are some examples of water tension?

A

Water tension in eyes, bug walking on water, fluid in lungs

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29
Q

What are ionic bonds?

A

When an electron is lost or gained between two atoms. (one atom loses an electron while the other atom gains the electron)

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30
Q

What substances do ionic bonds form?

A

Salts, Acids, Bases

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31
Q

What is oxidative stress?

A

The buildup of free radicals in the body which may lead to cancer, heart disease, and aging

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32
Q

What are antioxidants?

A

Molecules that safely interact with free radicals, which neutralize them before vital molecules are damaged

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33
Q

What are endogenous free radicals?

A

Derived from natural body metabolism

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34
Q

What are exogenous free radicals?

A

Derived from external sources

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35
Q

What are some examples of endogenous antioxidants?

A

Superoxide dismutase, glutathione, glutathione reductase, catalase

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36
Q

What are some examples of exogenous antioxidants?

A

Vitamins A, C, E, Carotenoids, Polyphenols

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37
Q

What is an ion?

A

An atom that has an unequal number of electrons and protons that create a charge

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38
Q

What is a cation?

A

An ion with a positive charge (more protons than electrons)

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39
Q

What is an anion?

A

An ion with a negative charge (more electrons than protons)

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40
Q

What is ionization?

A

The breaking of bonds that separate anions from cations

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41
Q

What are van der waals forces?

A

Weak nonspecific attractions between the nucleus of atom and the electrons of nearby atoms

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42
Q

What are hydrophobic interactions?

A

Non-polarity of molecules can drive them to assemble into anhydrous domains in aqueous solution

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43
Q

What are the differences between acids and bases?

A

Acids- It has more hydrogens and a lower pH level, Proton donor, H+

Bases- It has less hydrogens and a higher pH level, Proton acceptor, OH-

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44
Q

What does proton donor and proton acceptor mean?

A

Proton donor- Donates a H+ ion

Proton acceptor- Has an OH- and accepts the H+ ion

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45
Q

How can you tell an atom is an acid or a base?

A

Acid- It has a H in the front

Base- A base has an OH in it

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46
Q

Are pH levels for acidic solutions below 7 or above?

A

Below 7

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47
Q

Are pH levels for alkaline (basic) solutions below 7 or above?

A

Above 7

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48
Q

What is the pH level for intracellular fluid?

A

7

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49
Q

What is the pH level for blood?

A

7.35-7.45

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50
Q

What is the pH level for stomach acid?

A

1-2

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51
Q

What is the buffer system?

A

Chemicals that minimize changes in pH by reacting with strong acids or strong bases

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52
Q

What are on the ends of organic compound chains?

A

any type of functional groups

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53
Q

Why do we need isomers?

A

Because they have different enzymatic functions. Different enzymes breakdown different isomers because they are rearranged/composed differently.

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54
Q

What are isomers?

A

Molecules that have the same type of atoms but the order of them get changed or switched up

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55
Q

What are the 4 types of organic compounds?

A
  1. Carbs
  2. Lipids
  3. Protein
  4. Nucleic Acids
56
Q

What are the building blocks (simplest form) of Carbs, Lipids, Protein, Nucleic Acids?

A

Carbs- Monosaccharides
Lipids- Fatty acids
Protein- Amino acids
Nucleic Acids- Nucleotides

57
Q

What are the molecules made from the building blocks (examples_ in Carbs, Lipids, Protein, Nucleic Acids?

A

Carbs- Glucose
Lipids- Butter (saturated fatty acid)
Protein- Histidine
Nucleic Acids- Adenine

58
Q

What are the functions of Carbs, Lipids, Nucleic Acids?

A

Carbs- Source of energy
Lipids- Control what goes in and out of the cell, stores energy, and is the second energy source to carbs
Nucleic Acids- They store and process information within the cell

59
Q

What are monosaccharides?

A

Building blocks of carbs, single sugar compound

60
Q

What are some examples of monosaccharides and their function?

A

Glucose- used as food for cellular respiration

Fructose- converted to glucose to use for energy production

61
Q

What are disaccharides?

A

Sugars consisting of 2 monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds

62
Q

What are some examples of disaccharides and their function?

A

Sucrose- table sugar, consists of one fructose and on glucose

Lactose- milk sugar, consists of one glucose and one galactose

63
Q

What are polysaccharides?

A

Made of thousands of glucose molecules

64
Q

What is starch?

A

Plant storage of sugar

65
Q

What is glycogen?

A

Sugar storage in an animal cell

66
Q

What is cellulose?

A

Makes up cell walls of plants, it is fiber and humans cannot digest it

67
Q

What is Chitin?

A

It forms the exoskeleton of arthropods

68
Q

What is glycogen?

A

A branched chain of glucose which is our stored energy

69
Q

Where is glycogen stored?

A

In the liver and skeletal muscles

70
Q

What happens when cells need energy?

A

The glycogen in the liver is broken down and glucose is released in the bloodstream

71
Q

How are bonds created between monosaccharides?

A

By dehydration synthesis

72
Q

What is it called when the bond between disaccharides is broken?

A

Hydrolysis

73
Q

What is hydrolysis?

A

It is when water is added and it destroys the bond

74
Q

What is dehydration synthesis?

A

It is when water is taken away between two monosaccharides to form the bond together

75
Q

Why is a fatty acid considered non polar?

A

because of its nonpolar hydrocarbon chains and rings that make them hydrophobic

76
Q

What is a fun fact that we need to know about lipids?

A

They carry twice the amount of energy than carbs

77
Q

Is the polar carboxyl end in lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

A

hydrophilic

78
Q

Is the non-polar hydrocarbon end in lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic?

A

hydrophobic

79
Q

What is the difference between hydrophobic and hydrophilic?

A

hydrophobic- Hates water
hydrophilic- Loves water

80
Q

What are the differences between saturated and unsaturated fats?

A

Saturated- only had single covalent bonds, and allows maximum hydrogen bonding, solid fats

Unsaturated- has one or more double bonds, which binds with less hydrogen, liquid fats

81
Q

What are hydrogenated fats?

A

It turns a liquid (unsaturated fat) into a solid fat by adding hydrogen

82
Q

What are trans fats?

A

Artificially produced straight-chained fatty acids, hydrogens are altered in position

82
Q

There are 3 types of omega-3 fatty acids. From what foods is each-derived? (extra credit question)

Eicosapentaenoic, Docosahexaenoic, alpha linolenic

A

Eicosapentaenoic - Fish and fish oils
Docosahexaenoic- Fish and fish oils
Alpha Linolenic- Seed oils

83
Q

Where does the body incorporate omega-3/omega-6 fatty acids and what benefit do they provide in this location? (extra credit question)

A

They are incorporated into cell membranes in all tissues of the body. Anti inflammatory effects, adhesion proteins, gene expression, and membrane protein activity

84
Q

How do omega-3 fatty acids benefit the blood vessel walls? (extra credit question)

A

They help the blood vessel wall avoid stiffness and keep that elasticity that is needed to live long and healthy. And slow the plaque build up in them

84
Q

How do omega-3 fatty acids benefit the immune system? (extra credit question)

A

They strength the cells walls, help with strong immune response, help macrophages eat the bad stuff

84
Q

How do omega-3 fatty acids benefit the heart? (extra credit question)

A

They reduce triglyceride levels and reduce irregular heartbeats, and slows plaque build up in the heart

85
Q

How do omega-3 fatty acids benefit the eyes? (extra credit question)

A

Reduces the pressure in your eye, improves the production of the eyes oil which improves dry eye syndrome

86
Q

What are glycerides?

A

Fats that can attach to a simple sugar

87
Q

What are monoglycerides, diglycerides, and triglycerides made of?

A

Mono- 1 fatty acid 1 glycerol
Di- 2 fatty acids 1 glycerol
Tri- 3 fatty acids 1 glycerol

88
Q

What is protection in triglycerides?

A

It provides cushion to protect organs (kidney)

88
Q

What are some functions of mono/diglycerides?

A

Friction reduction- emulsifiers
immunity- antiviral, antibacterial
membrane structure- phospholipids
chemical messengers- enzymes, paracrine factors

88
Q

What is the energy source for triglycerides?

A

fatty acids broken down to provide energy

89
Q

What is insulation in triglycerides?

A

Fat deposits slow heat loss

90
Q

What are lipid soluble vitamins in triglycerides?

A

A, D, E, and K which dissolve in fat droplets within the cells

90
Q

Are the heads of a phospholipid hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

hydrophilic

91
Q

Are the tails of a phospholipid hydrophilic or hydrophobic?

A

hydrophilic

92
Q

What are micelles and liposomes?

A

Micelles- It is a small aggregate of phospholipids caused by hydrophobic interactions. It carries hydrophobic drugs

Liposomes- artificial vesicle composed of lipids that can surround an aqueous droplet. It carries hydrophilic drugs

93
Q

What are the 7 functions of a protein?

A

Protein- support, movement, transport, buffering, metabolic regulation, coordination and control, defense

93
Q

What are some drug examples that micelles and liposomes carry?

A

Micelles- Chemotherapies

Liposomes- Shingrix vaccine

94
Q

Categorize these different types of molecules into these 4 groups. 1. Carbs, 2. Lipids, 3. Proteins, 4. Nucleic acids

Glycogen
Cholesterol
Enzymes
ATP
Glucose
Ribonucleic acid
Glycerides
Phospholipids
Cellulose
Micelle
Antibodies
Lactose
Steroids
NAD
Polypeptide

A

Glycogen- carbs
Cholesterol- lipid
Enzymes- protein
ATP- nucleic acid
Glucose- carb
Ribonucleic acid- nucleic acid
Glycerides- lipid
Phospholipids- lipid
Cellulose- carb
Micelle- lipid
Antibodies- protein
Lactose- carb
Steroids- protein
NAD- nucleic acid
Polypeptide- protein

95
Q

What is a protein made of?

A

Amino group
Central carbon
Carboxyl group
R group

96
Q

What is a peptide bond?

A

It is a bond between amino acids

97
Q

How many amino acids are in Dipeptide, Tripeptide, and Polypeptide?

A

Dipeptide - Chain of 2 amino acids
Tripeptide- Chain of 3 amino acids
Polypeptide- Chain of many amino acids

98
Q

What are the N terminus and the C terminus in a protein?

A

N terminus- amino group of an amino acid at the end of the peptide
C terminus- Carboxyl group of an amino acid at the opposite end of the N terminus

99
Q

How does a peptide bond form?

A

One end of the amino acid forms (N terminus) with the carboxyl group of the other amino acid by dehydration reaction (the loss of water molecule)

100
Q

What is the primary structure in proteins?

A

It is just the sequence of amino acids together

101
Q

What is the secondary structure in proteins?

A

It is created by hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains. And covalent bond angles between amino acids determine the secondary structure

102
Q

What is the tertiary structure in proteins?

A

It is the 3D structure of proteins

103
Q

What is quaternary structure in proteins?

A

It is multiple subunits of proteins that combine with non covalent bonds

104
Q

How do antigens and antibodies interact?

A

So each antibody contains a paratope. And each antigen contains an epitope. So the epitope of an antigen binds to the paratope of the antibody so that the antibody can get rid of the antigen. So our body doesn’t get sick.

105
Q

What are antibodies?

A

They are Y shaped proteins produced by B cells in the immune system that respond to antigens

106
Q

If the paratope of an antibody mutated. Why would correct protein structure be important?

A

So that no matter what happens the protein can continue to work and function properly to neutralize the antigen.

107
Q

What are glycoproteins, and lipoproteins and an example of both?

A

Glycoprotein- Protein + carb, some hormones in the cell membrane
Lipoprotein- Protein + lipid, in the cell membranes and carries molecules to the blood

108
Q

What are nucleic acids made out of? (3)

A
  1. Nitrogenous base
  2. Pentose sugar
  3. Phosphate group
109
Q

What are all the nitrogenous bases?

A

Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine
Uracil

110
Q

Which nitrogenous bases are in DNA? and Which ones are in RNA

A

DNA- A,G,C,T
RNA- A,G,C,U

111
Q

What nitrogenous bases pair together in DNA and RNA?

A

DNA- A-T, G-C
RNA- A-U, G-C, T-U

112
Q

What is the backbone of the nucleic acid molecule (OF DNA AND RNA)?

A

The sugar phosphate sequence

113
Q

What does the nitrogenous bases carry within DNA (the A,G, T, C)?

A

The information for protein synthesis

114
Q

What are the real names for DNA and RNA?

A

DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA- Ribonucleic acid

115
Q

How many nucleotide chains are in DNA and RNA?

A

DNA- Double stranded
RNA- single stranded

116
Q

What is the sugar in DNA and RNA?

A

DNA- Deoxyribose
RNA- Ribose

117
Q

What is the function of DNA and RNA?

A

DNA- Forms the genetic material making up our chromosomes within the nucleus, provides instructions for building protein in the body
RNA- Synthesized by DNA, and carries out protein synthesis

118
Q

What is AMP in RNA?

A

A substrate with potential to create a high energy compound

119
Q

What is ADP in RNA?

A

created by ATP and has 2 phosphate groups

120
Q

What is ATP in RNA?

A

Made by ADP, It is the high energy compound derived from nucleotides

121
Q

What is phosphorylation and dephosphorylation?

A

phosphorylation- Attachment of a phosphate group to a molecule
dephosphorylation- Removal of a phosphate group from a molecule

122
Q

What are the functions of the nucleotides ATP, ADP, NAD, and FAD?

A

Energy capture and transfer

123
Q

What is the function of the nucleotide cAMP?

A

Cell to cell communication

124
Q

What happens to NaF when it is ionized?

A

The NA gives an electron to F and the NA turns into NA+ and the F turns into F-

125
Q

Why is ionization necessary in the body?

A

So other molecules can take part in other chemical reactions that the body needs charged ions for

126
Q

Why are the following considered “attractions” and not bonds: hydrogen bonding, Van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions

A

Because their interactions/pull toward each other are so weak they are considered attractions and not bonds

127
Q

Why are micelles and liposomes important in clinical settings?

A

Because they improve drug delivery to cells in out body

128
Q

why is carbon essential in organic compounds?

A

Because it has the ability to form stable bonds with many different types of elements

129
Q

How do we get ATP from phosphorylation?

A

adding of the phosphate group which charges it up and makes ATP

Physiology lecture (8 decks)

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