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Biology > Chapter 28 and 29 > Flashcards

Chapter 28 and 29 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Green algae

A

Paraphyletic group of photosynthetic organisms that have chloroplasts like land plants

Classified as protists, and living relatives of land plants

Examples: Mosses, hornworts, liverworts and all vascular plants

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2
Q

Why are green algae and land plants studied together

A
  1. Close relatives that form a monophyletic group
  2. Transition from aquatic to terrestrial life occurred when land plants evolved from green algae
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3
Q

Ecosystem

A

All organisms that live in a geographic area together with physical components of the environment such as atmosphere, precipitation, surface water, sunlight, soil and nutrients

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4
Q

Ecosystem services from green plants

A

Produce oxygen via oxygenic photosynthesis

Build soil by providing food for decomposers

Hold soil and prevent nutrients from being lost

Hold water in soil

Moderate climate by providing shade and reducing wind impact

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5
Q

Artificial selection

A

Deliberate manipulation by humans as in animal and plant breeding, of the genetic composition of a population by allowing only individuals with desirable traits to reproduce

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6
Q

How did biologists investigate green plants

A
  1. Morphological traits
  2. Fossil record
  3. Phylogenetic trees are estimated from similarities and differences in DNA sequences from homologous genes and whole genomes
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7
Q

Similarities between green algae and land plants

A
  1. Their chloroplasts contain the photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a and b and the accessory pigment B-carotene
  2. Have similar arrangements of thylakoid
  3. Cell walls, sperm, and peroxisomes are similar in structure and composition
  4. Chloroplasts synthesize starch as a storage product
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8
Q

What green algal groups are the most similar to land plants

A

Zygnematophyceae (closest relatives to land plants)
Coleochaetophyceae
Charophyceae

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9
Q

Three categories of land plants

A

Nonvascular plants

Seedless vascular plants

Seed plants

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10
Q

Nonvascular plants

A

paraphyletic group of land plants that lack vascular tissue

Rely on spores for reproduction and dispersal

Ex. Mosses

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11
Q

Vascular tissue

A

Specialized cells that conduct water/nutrients throughout the plant

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12
Q

Seedless vascular plants

A

Have well developed vascular tissues but do not make seeds

Relies on spores for dispersal

Ex. Fern

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13
Q

Seed plants

A

Vascular tissue and produces seeds

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14
Q

Seed

A

Consists of an embryo and a strong of nutritive tissue surrounded by a tough protective layer and an outer protective layer (seed coat)

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15
Q

Gymnosperms

A

First seeded plants

vascular plant that makes seeds but does not produce flowers

Prominent from 299-145 mya

Grow best in drier habitats

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16
Q

Angiosperms

A

plants that produce flowers and bear their seeds in fruits

Appear 150 mya

Produce pollen grains transported via wind or insects

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17
Q

Five major intervals of fossil record of land plants

A
  1. Origin of land plants
  2. Silurian-Devonian explosion
  3. Carbon ferous period
  4. Diversification of gymnosperms
  5. Diversification of angiosperms
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18
Q

Cuticle

A

Watertight barrier that coats aboveground parts of today’s land plants and helps them resist drying

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19
Q

Why scientists believe fossils of the origin of land plants represent first land plants

A
  1. Possibly has an iteration of culpcile
  2. A material surrounds fossilized spores looks almost identical to sporopollenin
  3. Fossilized spores have been found in association with spore-producing structures called sporangia which is similar to sporangia in modern nonvascular plants
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20
Q

Sporopollenin

A

Waxy substance that encases spores and pollen of modern land plants and helps them resist drying

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21
Q

Sporangia

A

A spore-producing structure found in seed plants, some protists, and some fungi

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22
Q

Origin of land plants (first period)

A

Begins 475 mya
Spans 60 million yrs
Fossils dated from this period are fragments of plants and microscopic spores

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23
Q

Silurian-Devonian Explosion

A

The second major interval in the fossil records of land plants.

Fossils of major plant lineages are found in rocks dated 416-359 mya

During this period, plants colonized the land in conjunction with fungi. Fungi channeled nutrients from soils to plants, and plants produced sugars and other products of photosynthesis that were useful to bacteria in a mutually beneficial symbiosis

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24
Q

The carboniferous period

A

Third interval in fossil history of plants
Sediments date from 359-299 mya

Coal deposits is found in these sediments and since coal is formed with the presence of water, these carboniferous fossils indicate extensive forested swamps

The fossils derived from seedless vascular plants were ancestors of today’s club, mosses, horsetails, and ferns

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25
Q

Diversification of gymnosperms

A

The fourth interval in plant history is characterized by seed plants, gymnosperms

Fossil record from 299 mya to 145 mya

During this interval biologists infer wet and dry environments became blanketed with green plants as gymnosperms grow in dry habitats

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26
Q

Diversification of angiosperms

A

The fifth interval is happening now

Age of flowering plants, the angiosperms and are dated to appeared first 125 mya

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27
Q

Timeline of plants

A

According to the fossil record, green algae appeared first, then nonvascular plants, seedless vascular plants, and then seed plants

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28
Q

Resources that plants obtained from land after transitioning to dry land

A

Light: The large amount of light plant leaves recieved drove photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide: Another essential part of photosynthesis is plentiful above water

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29
Q

What adaptations did natural selection favor in land plants that allowed them to survive on land

A
  1. Preventing water loss, keeping cells from drying out and dying
  2. Providing protection from harmful UV radiation
  3. Moving water from tissues with direct access to water to tissues without direct access
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30
Q

Innovation that made transition to land possible

A

Random mutations lead to the production of cuticles.

As it is a waxy watertight sealant that covered the aboveground parts of plants and gives them the ability to survive in dry environments

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31
Q

How does the stoma help in photosynthesis

A

Helps CO2 diffuse into the interior of leaves and stems where cells are actively photosynthesizing

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32
Q

Guard cells

A

One of the specialized, crescent cells forming the border of a plant stoma

The guard cells change shape when they lose or gain water, when they lose water the pore closes and when they absorb water the pores are opened.

They allow CO2 in

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33
Q

Flavonoids

A

UV-absorbing compounds plants accumulate to protect themselves from UV light

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34
Q

Two problems from plants growing upright to obtain better access to sunlight than individuals that cannot.

A
  1. Land plants must transport water from tissues that are in contact with wet soil to tissues in contact with dry air against the force of gravity
  2. Land plants must be rigid enough to avoid falling over in response to gravity and wind
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35
Q

Lignin

A

Complex polymer built from six-carbon ring. Found in secondary cell walls of some plants

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36
Q

Why plants stay upright

A

The evolution of lignified vascular tissue allowed early plants to support upright stems in the face of wind and gravity and to transport water from roots to aboveground tissues

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37
Q

Tracheids

A

A long, thin, water-conducting cell that transport water and mineral salts through the Xylem of vascular plants

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38
Q

Secondary cell wall

A

The thickened inner layer of a cell wall formed by certain plant cells as they mature and after they have stopped growing; contains lignin in water-conducting cells. Provides support or protection

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39
Q

Primary cell wall

A

Outermost layer of a plant cell wall, made of cellulose fibers and gelatinous polysaccharides

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40
Q

Vessel elements

A

Short, wide, water-conducting cell in vascular cells that has gaps through the primary and secondary cell walls, that allows passage of water between adjacent cells

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41
Q

wood

A

Support material from tracheids or a combination of tracheids and vessels

42
Q

Three innovations that occurred early in land plant evolution that was vital to reproduction in a dry environment

A

(1) spores were produced that resist drying
(2) gametes were produced in complex, multicellular structures; and
(3) the embryo was retained on the parent (mother) plant and was nourished by it.

43
Q

Sporopollenin

A

Very durable polymer that surrounds that helps spores resist drying and survive for a long time

44
Q

Gametangia

A

Organ where gametes are produced

Protected gametes from drying out or physical damage

45
Q

Antheridium

A

Sperm-producing gametangium

46
Q

Archegonium

A

egg-producing gametangium

47
Q

Embryophytes

A

A plant that nourishes its embryos inside its own body

48
Q

Alternation of generations

A

Plants alternate between two stages in their life cycle called the gametophyte and sporophyte stage

49
Q

Gametophyte

A

Sexual phase in life cycles of plants and algae

develops sex organs that produce gametes, haploid sex cells? And participate in fertilization

50
Q

Sporophyte

A

a diploid, multicellular spore-producing phase in the life cycle of the plant body which exhibits alternation of generations

51
Q

Steps of alternation of generations

A
  1. The sporophyte produces spores by meiosis. Spores are haploid.
  2. Spores germinate and divide by mitosis to develop into multicellular, haploid gametophytes.
  3. Gametophytes produce gametes by mitosis. Both the gametophyte and the gametes are haploid, but gametophytes are multicellular while gametes are unicellular.
  4. Two gametes unite during fertilization to form a diploid zygote.
  5. The zygote divides by mitosis and develops into a multicellular, diploid sporophyte
52
Q

Compare and contrast zygotes, spores, and gametes

A
  1. Zygotes and spores are both single cells that divide by mitosis to form a multicellular individual. Zygotes develop into sporophytes; spores develop into gametophytes.
  2. Zygotes are diploid, while spores and gametes are haploid.
  3. Zygotes result from the fusion of two haploid cells, such as a sperm and an egg, but spores are not formed by the fusion of gametes.
  4. Spores are produced by meiosis inside structures called sporangia; gametes are produced by mitosis inside gametangia.
53
Q

Heterospory

A

It is the production of two distinct types of spores, microspores and megaspores

54
Q

Homospory

A

The production of just one type of spore

55
Q

Microsporangia

A

Spore producing structures that produce microspores that develop into male gametophytes, which produce sperm by mitosis

56
Q

Megasporangia

A

Spore producing structures that produce megaspores, that develop into female gametophytes which produce eggs by mitosis

57
Q

Fossil record of green algae and land plants

A

Green algae appear 700-725 mya
Land plants appear 475 mya

58
Q

How plants have protection from UV irradiation

A

Make compounds that aborbs UV light such as flavonoids

Carotenoids protect plant against UV

59
Q

Obstacles to reproduction when plants made transition from water to land

A

Gamete dispersal and lack of motility

60
Q

Why spores (pollen) resist drying

A

They are incased in a tough coat of sporopollenin

61
Q

How embryos are retained and nourished by parent plant

A

Land plants retain eggs inside the archegonia

62
Q

Archegonia

A

Female reproductive structure in non-flowering plants such as mosses, ferns, hornworts, some algae and some conifers

63
Q

Embryophyta

A

clade of plants that includes all plants producing an embryo and developing vascular tissue and comprises the embryophytes

64
Q

Gametophyte dominant life cycle

A

In nonvascular plants (mosses) sporophyte is small, short-lived and dependent on gametophyte for nutrition

65
Q

Sporophyte-dominant life cycle

A

In ferns and other vascular plants, sporophyte is much larger and longer lived than gametophyte

66
Q

Sporophyte-dominated life cycle advantages

A

Diploid cells respond to varying environmental conditions more efficiently than haploid cells

67
Q

What is microsporangia producing microspores mean

A

Develops into male gametophytes (produce sperm)

68
Q

What does macrosporangia produce megaspores mean

A

Develop into female gametophytes

69
Q

What kind of plants are heterosporous

A

Seed plants

Microsporangia –> microspores –> male gametophytes –> sperm

Megasporangia –> megaspores –> female gametophyte –> Eggs

70
Q

Pollen grain

A

Tiny male gametophytes surrounded by a tough coat of sporopollenin

Evolution of this allowed plants living in dry habitats to reproduce

71
Q

Seed

A

Include an embryo and store of nutrients provided by mother, surrounded by protective coat

Seeds allow the embryos to be dispersed to new habitats from the parent plant by wind, water or animals

72
Q

Flowering plants (angiosperms)

A

Most diverse land plants living today

73
Q

Two key reproductive structures of flowers (angiosperms)

A

stamens: produce the male gametes in pollen grains

carpels: contain the female gametes (the eggs inside the ovules),

74
Q

Angio fertilization

A

Involves two sperm cells

One sperm fuses with egg to form diploid (2n) zygote

Second sperm fuses with two nuclei in female gametophyte to form triploid (3n) nutritive tissue called endosperm

75
Q

Pollination

A

Transfer of pollen from stamen to carpel

Provides pollinators with food

Mutualism as the pollinator gets food and the plant gets fertilized

76
Q

Fruit

A

Structure derived from ovary and encloses one or more seeds

Encourages seed dispersal by animals

77
Q

Adaptive radiation

A

Single lineage produces large number of descendant species adapted to a wide variety of habitats

78
Q

Parasites

A

absorb nutrients from and are harmful to their hosts

79
Q

Mutualist fungi

A

Benefit the host plant by providing plant with water and key nutrients in exchange for sugars

Can help plants repel herbivores by producing toxins

Aids digestion of insects or serves as food for them

80
Q

Negative impacts of fungi on humans

A

cause illness

Fungi cause fruit and vegetable spoilage

81
Q

Positive impacts of fungi on humans

A

Source for many antibiotics, including penicillin

Mushrooms used as food

Yeast used to make bread, cheese, et cetera

Fungal enzymes used to improve characteristics of foods

82
Q

Mycorrhizae

A

Association between fungi and plant roots allow for faster plant growth

83
Q

Fungi’s effect on the carbon cycle

A

Accelerates it

84
Q

Saprophytes

A

Fungi digests dead plant material such as cellulose and lignin (wood) to obtain organic compounds

85
Q

Morphological traits of fungi

A

Single-celled forms (yeasts)
or
Multicellular filamentous forms
(mycelia)

Some species adopt both

86
Q

Hyphae

A

Long, narrow, frequently branching filaments that make up mycelium

These filaments are thin enough to penetrate tiny fissures in soil and absorb nutrients inaccessible to plant roots

Separated into cells by crosswalls (septa)

Gaps in septa (pores) enable nutrients to flow between these compartments

87
Q

4 types of reproductive structure of sexually reproducing fungi

A

Chytrids
Zygomycetes
Basidomycetes
Ascomycetes

88
Q

Chytrids

A

Both sexually produced gametes and asexually produced spores in this group have flagella

Only known motile fungal cells

89
Q

Zygomycetes

A

Have distinctive spore producing structures

Zygosporangia formed from fusion of cells from joined-together haploid hyphae from 2 individuals

90
Q

Basidiomycetes

A

Form basidia: specialized club-like cells that form at the end of hyphae

Each basidium produces 4 spores

91
Q

Ascomycetes

A

“sac fungi” form asci reproductive sac-like cells at the ends of hyphae

Each ascus produces 8 spores

92
Q

Asci

A

sac-like cells where meiosis occurs and 8 spores form

93
Q

What does fungi produce through asexual reproduction

A

Asexual spores called conidia

94
Q

Key traits that links animals and fungi

A

DNA sequence data is more similar

Chitin synthesized by both animals and fungi

Flagella in chytrid spores and gametes are similar to animal flagella

Both animals and fungi store glucose as polysaccharide glycogen

95
Q

Types of plant-mycorrhizal symbiosis

A

Ectomyccorrhial fungi
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

96
Q

Ectomycorrhizal fungi

A

is a symbiotic association of fungi with the feeder roots of higher plants in which both the partners are mutually benefited

97
Q

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

A

soil microorganisms able to form mutualistic symbiosis with most terrestrial plants

help in production of plant growth hormones, increase the nutrient availability and also inhibit the root pathogens.

98
Q

Endophytes

A

fungi that live between and within plant cells

Increase drought tolerance of host plants

Produce compounds that deter herbivores

Receive benefits by absorbing sugars from plants

99
Q

Lichens

A

complex life form that is a symbiotic partnership of two separate organisms, a fungus and an algae

Can be important as a food source and can initiate soil production in barren areas

100
Q

Adaptations that make fungi effective decomposers

A
  1. Large surface area on mycelium enhances absorption
  2. Saprophytic fungi able to grow toward dead tissues that supply their food

Use extracellular digestion

Biology (40 decks)

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