Chapter 10 Part-Two Flashcards
What is the traditional date marking the collapse of the Roman empire?
476, when the German general Odoacer overthrew the last Roman emperor in the West.
What reduced Western Europe’s population by more than 25 percent?
Disease and warfare
Land under cultivation contracted with the fall of Rome while what expanded?
Forests, marshland, and wasteland expanded
Rome at its height was a city of 1 million people, but by the tenth century, it numbered perhaps ____?
10,000
What Germanic peoples, who the Romans had viewed as barbarians now emerged as the dominant peoples of Western Europe?
Goths, Visigoths, Franks, Lombards, Angles, Saxons
What regional kingdoms arose to replace Roman authority?
led by Visigoths in Spain, Franks in France, Lombards in Italy, and Angles and Saxons in England
Who was Woden?
their god of war
What did the funeral monument of a person who was Germanic but deeply influenced by the Romans inscribes?
“I am a Frank by nationality, but a Roman soldier under arms.”
What Visigoth ruler married a Roman noblewoman, and gave voice to the continuing attraction of Roman culture and its empire?
Athaulf
What was the name of the ruler of the Carolingian Empire who erected an embryonic imperial bureaucracy, standardized weights and measures, and began to act like an imperial ruler?
Charlemagne
On Christmas Day of the year 800, who was crowned as a new Roman emperor by the pope, although his realm splintered shortly after his death?
Charlemagne
Who gathered much of Germany under his control, saw himself as renewing Roman rule, and was likewise invested with the title of the emperor by the pope?
Otto I of Saxony
What was Otto I’s realm subsequently known as?
known as the Holy Roman Empire, which was largely limited to Germany and soon proved little more than a collection of quarreling principalities. Blended Roman and Germanic elements.
With the new kingdoms, a highly fragmented and decentralized society known as what?
feudalism emerged with great local variation
In thousands of independent, self-sufficient, and largely isolated landed estates or manors, power - political, economic, and social - was exercised by whom?
by a warrior elite of landowning lords
Lesser lords and knights swore allegiance to greater lords or kings and became their what?
their vassals, frequently receiving lands and plunder in return for military service
Roman-style slavery gradually gave way to what?
serfdom
Unlike slaves, serfs were not the what?
personal property of their masters, could not be arbitrarily thrown off their land, and were allowed to live in families
What did one family on a manor near Paris in the ninth century owe?
four silver coins, wine, wood, three hens, and fifteen eggs per year
What filled the vacuum left by the collapse of empire?
Church, later known as Roman Catholic, yet another link to the now-defunct Roman world
How was the Roman Catholic hierarchically organized?
of popes, bishops, priests, and monasteries and were modeled on that of the Roman Empire and took over some of its political, administrative, educational, and welfare functions.
What language was that of the Church and even gave way to various vernacular languages in common speech?
Latin
What type of strategy did numerous missionaries pursue?
a “top-down” strategy
Amulets and charms to ward of evil became medals with what image?
image of Jesus or the Virgin Mary
December 25 was selected as the birthday of Jesus why?
for it was associated with the winter solstice, the coming of more light, and the birth or rebirth of various deities in pre-Christian European traditions
In the fifth century C.E., who had penetrated as far as France and briefly, under the leadership of Attila, eastern Europe?established a large state across much of Central and
Central Asian Huns
In the ninth and tenth centuries, what groups invasions from the east and Viking incursions from the north likewise disrupted and threatened post-Roman Europe?
Magyar
After 750, what reached its peak in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, enhancing agricultural production, especially in northern and highland regions?
generally warming trend
What was a new phase of European civilization from 1000-1300 that signs of expansion and growth were widely evident?
High Middle Ages
The population of Europe grew from perhaps 35 million in 1000 to about what in 1340?
80 million
By 1300, the forest cover of Europe had been reduced to about what?
20 percent of the land area
What did the French king Philip IV declare in 1289?
“Today each and every river and waterside of our realm, large and small, yields nothing.”
One center of commercial activity lay in Northern Europe from England to the Baltic coast and involved the exchange of what?
wood, beeswax, furs, rye, wheat, salt, cloth, and wine
Other major trading networks centered on northern Italian towns such as what?
Florence, Genoa, and Venice
The northern Italian towns trading partners were that of Islam and Byzantium and the primary objectives of trade included what?
silk, drugs, precious stones, and spices from Asia
In great trading fairs, like in the ____ area of France near Paris, merchants from Northern and Southern Europe met to exchange the products of their areas, such as northern woolen for Mediterranean spices
Champagne
In the early 1300s, what were the populations of London, Paris, and Venice respectively?
London 40,000 people, Paris 80,000, and Venice by the end of 14th century had 150,000 people.
The towns gave rise to and attracted new groups of people, in particular, whom?
merchants, bankers, artisans, and university-trained professionals such as lawyers, doctors, and scholars
What did people organize themselves into?
guilds (associations of people pursuing the same line of work)
Women were active in a number of urban professions such as what?
weaving brewing, milling grains, midwifery, small-scale retailing, laundering, spinning, and prostitution
What woman lent a large sum of money to the king of England to finance a war against Scotland in 1318?
Rose Burford
What twelfth-century abbess, won wide acclaim for her writings on theology, medicine, botany, and music?
Hildegard of Bingen
What was a religious opportunity for women, operating outside of monastic life and the institutional church, was that of whom?
Beguines, which was a group of lay-women, often from poorer families in Northern Europe, who lived together, practiced celibacy, and devoted themselves to weaving and to working with the sick, the old, and the poor.
What replaced the hand-grinding previously undertaken by women?
Water and animal-powered grain mills
By 1300, much of the independence that such abbesses and their nuns had enjoyed was what?
was curtailed and male control tightened, even as veneration of the Virgin Mary swept across Western Christendom
What was the name of the English mystic and anchoress who acquired considerable public prominence and spiritual influence?
Julian of Norwich, even as she emphasized the feminine dimension of the Divine and portrayed Jesus as a mother, who “feeds us with Himself.”
Men were no longer able to function as warriors protecting their women, men increasingly defined themselves as what?
as “providers”; a man’s role was to brave the new marketplaces “to win wealth for himself and his children”
In a popular tale, what did a woman praise her husband for?
“he was a good provider; he knew how to rake in the money and how to save it.”
By 1450, what did the English word, “husband,” come to be known as in its verb meaning
“to keep” or “to save”
After 1000 efforts to engage more actively with both near and more distant neighbors became evident in new Europen civilization and was known as an…?
“medieval expansion” of Western Christendom which took place as the Byzantine world was contracting under pressure from the West, from Arab invasion, and later from Turkish conquest
The western half of Christendom was on the ____, while the eastern part was in ____. It was a sharp reversal of their earlier trajectories.
rise
decline
Who raided much of Europe and now set off on a maritime transatlantic venture around 1000 that briefly established a colony in Newfoundland in North America, and more durably in Greenland and Iceland?
The Vikings of Scandinavia
Nothing more dramatically revealed European expansiveness and the religious passions that informed it than what?
than the Crusades, a series of “holy wars” that captured the imagination of Western Christendom for several centuries, beginning in 1095
What were the Crusades in European thinking and practice?
that the Crusades were wars undertaken at God’s command and authorized by the pope as the Vicar of Christ on earth
What were participants required to do to participate in the Crusades?
participants had to swear a vow and in return offered an indulgence, which removed the penalties for any confessed sins, as well as various material benefits, such as immunity from lawsuits and a moratorium on the repayment of debts.
What were the most famous Crusades?
They were those aimed at wresting Jerusalem and the holy places associated with the life of Jesus from Islamic control and returning them to Christendom
What did the Crusades begin?
In 1095
What accompanied the seizure of Jerusalem in 1099?
the slaughter of many Muslims and Jews as the Crusaders made their way to the tomb of Christ, according to no doubt exaggerated reports, through streets littered with corpses and ankle deep in blood.
Those Christians who waged war for centuries to reclaim the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim hands were declared what?
declared “crusaders,” with a similar set of spiritual and material benefits
Who also took part in wars to conquer, settle, and convert lands along the Baltic Sea?
Scandinavian and German warriors
The Byzantine Empire and Russia, both of which followed Eastern Orthodox Christianity, were also on the what?
on the receiving end of Western crusading, as were Christian heretics, Jews, and various enemies of the pope in Europe itself
The penetration of Turkic-speaking peoples from Central Asia and the devastating Mongol invasions of the 13th century were far more what?
far more significant in Islamic history than the temporary incursions of European Christians
Which regions were brought permanently into the world of Western Christendom?
Spain, Sicily, and the Baltic region
How was a declining Byzantium further weakened in 1204 and left even more vulnerable to Muslim Turkish conquest?
by the Crusader sacking of Constantinople in 1204
Muslim scholarship, together with what, also flowed into Europe, largely through Spain and Sicily?
with the Greek learning that Muslim scholarship incorporated
The rift between whom was deepened further and remains to this day a fundamental divide in the Christian world?
Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism
What was both expressed and exacerbated as Crusaders on their way to Jerusalem found time to massacre Jews?
Christian anti-Semitism
What were the Crusaders on their way to Jerusalem who found time to massacre Jews, regarded as in a number of European cities, particularly in Germany?
“Christ-killers”
Who was a leading figure in the Second Crusade?
Bernard of Clairvaux and he declared, “It is good that you march against the Muslims, but anyone who touches a Jew to take his life, is as touching Jesus himself.”
European empire building, especially in the Americas, continued to crusading notion that “___ ___ __”
“God wills it.”
What did Muslim observers who encountered Europeans see them as?
barbarians
What did an Arab geographer of the tenth century say when commenting on Europeans?
“Their bodies are large, their manners harsh, their understanding dull, and their tongues heavy… Those of them who are farthest to the north are the most subject to stupidity, grossness, and brutishness.”
Muslim travelers over the next several centuries saw more to be praised where?
in West African kingdoms, where Islam was practiced and gold was plentiful
In the early sixteenth century, What capital were the Spanish invaders of Mexico stunned by?
the Aztec capital, especially its huge market, claiming that they “had never seen such a thing before.”
What goods did European elites eagerly seek?
sought spices, silks, porcelain, and sugar from afar even as they assimilated various technological, intellectual, and cultural innovations
By 1500 Europe was able to catch up with, and in some areas surpass whom?
China and the Islamic world
Where were technological breakthroughs first apparent in Europe?
In agriculture as Europeans adapted to the very different environmental conditions north of the Alps in the several centuries following 500 C.E.
What did Europeans develop for agriculture that was to be used north of the Alps?
They developed a heavy wheeled plow that could handle dense soils of Northern Europe far better than the light, or “scratch,” plow used in Mediterranean agriculture.
To pull the plow what did Europeans rely increasingly upon?
on horses rather than oxen and to use iron horseshoes and a more efficient collar, which probably originated in China or Central Asia and could support much heavier loads.
What did Europeans also develop that allowed considerably more land to be planted at any one time?
a new three-field system of crop rotation
The fourteenth-century painting illustrates the Christian seizure of Jerusalem during the First Crusade in 1099, who is the crowned figure in the center who was a French knight and nobleman who played a prominent role in the attack and was briefly known as the king of Jerusalem?
Godefroi de Bouillion
Europeans began to use non-animal sources of energy particularly after when?
after 1000
A new type of what, which was very different from an earlier Persian version, was widely used in Europe by the twelfth and thirteenth centuries?
windmill
What device was used by the Romans to grind grain, but their development was limited since few streams flowed.
The water-driven mill, and by the ninth century, watermills were rapidly evident in Europe
In the early fourteenth century, a concentration of how many mills dotted a one-mile stretch of the Seine River near Paris?
sixty-eight mills
What else did the water-driven mill provide in addition to grinding grain?
The mills provided power for sieving flour, tanning hids, making beer, sawing wood
What devices enabled Europeans of the High Middle Ages to revolutionize the production in a number of industries and to break with the ancient tradition of depending almost wholly on animal or human muscle as sources of energy?
Devices such as cranks, flywheels, camshafts, and complex gearing mechanisms
European artisans and engineers interested in tapping mechanical sources of energy that a number of them experimented with what, which was an idea borrowed from Indian philosophers?
perpetual motion machines
Although Gunpowder was invented in China, Europeans were probably the first to use it in what?
in cannons, in the early fourteenth century, and by 1500 they had the most advanced arsenals in the world
What did a Chinese official in 1517, who encountered European ships and weapons, remarked with surprise what?
“The westerns are extremely dangerous because of their artillery. No weapon ever made since memorable antiquity is superior to their cannon.”
What advances in shipbuilding and navigation techniques enabled vessels to sail the win and provided the foundation for European mastery of the sea?
The magnetic compass and sternpost rudder from China and adaptations of the Mediterranean or Arab lateen sail
About 1260, what English scholar and Franciscan friar wrote of the possibilities he foresaw, and in doing so, he expressed the confident spirit of the age?
Roger Bacon, writing about navigation, chariot construction, flying machines, and countless other things that can be constructed
The multicentered political system shaped the emerging civilizations of the West and gave rise to what?
to frequent wars, enhanced the role and status of military men, and drove the “gunpowder revolution.”
By 1500 who had caught up to the more advanced Asian counterparts in agriculture, industry, war, and sailing?
Europeans
Europe’s multistate system provided what?
enough competition to stimulate innovation, but it also preserved enough order and unity to allow the economy to grow
Unlike the Orthodox Church in Byzantium, what practice of the Roman Catholic Church in the West maintained a degree of independence from state authority that served to check the power of kings and lords?
practice of caesaropapism
Many cities, where wealthy merchants exercised local power, won the right to make and enforce their own laws and appoint their own officials, what example, became almost completely independent city-states.
Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Milan
The relative weakness of Europe’s rulers allowed urban merchants more leeway, and opened the way to a more thorough development of what in later centuries?
capitalism
Intended to strengthen royal authority by consulting with major social groups, these embryonic parliaments did not represent whom?
did not represent the “people” or the “nation” but instead embodied the three great “estates of the realm”-the clergy(the first estate), the landowning nobility (the second estate), and urban merchants (the third estate).
What are the three great “estates of the realm”?
the clergy(the first estate), the landowning nobility (the second estate), and urban merchants (the third estate)
Some early Christian thinkers sought to maintain a clear separation between the new religion and the ideas of whom?
ideas of Plato and Aristotle
Who asked, “What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?”
Tertullian, an early church leader form North Africa
The notion that Greek philosophy could serve as what to faith, more fully disclosing the truths of Christianity?
serve as a “handmaiden”
What did the West develop that provided a measure of independence for a variety of institutions - towns and cities, guilds, professional associations, and especially universities?
legal system
What European universities became “zones of intellectual autonomy” in which scholars could pursue their studies with some freedom from the dictates of religious or political authorities, although the freedom was never complete and was frequently contested?
Universities in Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Salamanca
What was an early indication of a new emphasis which occurred in the late eleventh century?
when students in a monastic school in France asked their teacher, Anselm, to provide them a proof for the existence of God based solely on reason, without using the Bible or other sources of divine revelation
What was the new interest in rational thought first applied to?
to theology, the “queen of the sciences” to European thinkers
Who declared, ‘Faith believes. It does not dispute>”
Bernard of Clairvaux, a twelfth-century French abbot, who’s contemporary and intellectual opponent, the French scholar William of Conches lashed out at him?
Who was the intellectual opponent of Bernard of Clairvaux, a twelfth-century French abbot?
The French scholar William of Conches, who lashed out: “You poor fools. God can make a cow out of a tree, but has he ever done so? Therefore show some reason why a thing is so or cease to hold that it is so.”
What did European intellectuals apply their newly discovered confidence in human reason?
into law, medicine, and the world of nature, exploring optics, magnetism, astronomy, and alchemy.
What was the scientific study of nature known as?
known as “natural philosophy?
Slowly and never completely, the scientific study of nature, began to separate itself from what?
from theology
What happened in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, that helped Greek rational thinking in Europe?
an explosion of translations from Greek and Arabic into Latin, many of them undertaken in Spain, gave European scholars direct access to the works of ancient Greeks and to the remarkable results of Arab scholarship in astronomy, optics, medicine, pharmacology, and more
Who was one of the translators that took Greek and Arabic scholarship into Latin?
Adelard of Bath, who was remarked that he had learned, ‘under the guidance of reason from Arabic teachers,” not to trust established authority
It was the works of the prolific Aristotle, with his logical approach and what that made the deepest impression?
“scientific temperament”
Whos writing became the basis of university education and largely dominated the thought of Western Europe in the five centuries after 1200?
Aristotle
The fourteenth-century manuscript painting shows a classroom scene from where in Italy?
from the University of Bologna with a sleeping and disruptive students
The growing emphasis on human rationality, is considered by some to be at least partially separate from divine revelation, and lay on of the foundations of what?
of the later Scientific Revolution and the secularization of European intellectual life.
Where did the Byzantine Empire lay their interest in primarily?
in the humanities (literature, philosophy, history) and theology rather than in the natural sciences or medicine
In 529, what emperor closed Plato’s Academy in Athens, claiming that it was an outpost of paganism?
the emperor Justinian
What fourteenth-century Byzantine scholar and statesman declared, “The great men of the past have said everything so perfectly that they have left nothing for us to say?”
Theodore Metochites
