🌍Case Study - Antarctica as a Global Common Flashcards
What does Antarctica store?
Most of the world’s fresh water
How does the continent change in winter?
It doubles in size
When was Antarctica discovered?
In 1821, by sealers
When was the heroic exploration of Antarctica?
1895-1922
What is an ice sheet?
Results from small inputs of snow and frost (exceeding ablation rates) over a very long time
What is ablation?
The opposite of accumulation, refers to all processes that remove snow, ice and water from the glacier or snowfield
What is a nunatack?
An exposed, rocky element of a ridge, mountain or peak not covered by snow or ice within or at the edge of an ice field or glacier. Also know as glacial islands
What is the Antarctic convergence zone?
A natural boundary separating two distinct hydrological regions/ areas of distinct climate
Why do Antarctic waters freeze at such low temperatures?
Because they are so salty
What happens at the Antarctic convergence zone?
Warm surface water and cold antarctic water meet
What is global thermohaline circulation?
When water moves along gradients
How does water have a tendency to move?
From warm to colder areas
How much of the land is ice free?
Less than 5%
What do mean winter temperatures range from?
-9 to -68 degrees C
What are claims of Antarctic land founded on?
Discovery and exploration of areas
Proximity to Antarctica
Seeking control of natural resources
When was the Antarctic Treaty created?
1959
How many countries have now signed the treaty?
46
What are the main intentions of the treaty?
Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only
Antarctica should be a site of scientific investigation
No nation would be obligated to surrender its claim, and no new claim could be made
What does the environmental protocol of the treaty state?
Commits the parties to comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment
Designates Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science
Bans all commercial mineral resource activity
Requires assessment of impacts of any activities
When will the environmental protocol be revised?
2048
How many environmental NGOs work in coalition to protect Antarctica?
Over 1000
What human activities threaten Antarctica?
Scientific research
Mineral exploitation
Fisheries
Tourism
How many permanent scientific bases exist on Antarctica?
40
How can scientific research threaten the environment?
In 1989, an Argentine ship ran aground and released 25,000 gallons of fuel into the sea. Similar events have occurred at Russian and US bases
Where have coal seams been discovered?
Along the coastline and in the mountains
Why has activity at coals seams so far been deterred?
It isn’t commercially viable, but may be needed fr future demand
Where has a great potential for oil?
The Weddel and Ross seas, on the continental shelf
How many barrels of oil are estimated to be in the Weddel and Ross seas?
50 billion
What is the only large scale exploitation in Antarctica?
Fishing
What are the impacts of fishing in Antarctica?
Over-fishing of target species
Effects on species that depend on target species
Killing of other species accidentally caught
Destruction of habitat by equipment
What is the biggest species of concern in Antarctic fisheries?
Krill
Why are krill such an important species?
They feed on phytoplankton, and are then eaten by a wide range of species
What has been put down to the over fishing of Krill?
The decline in some penguin species
Why is Krill being fished?
It is used as feed on salmon farms and their enzymes have pharmaceutical uses
What is CCAMLR?
Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
What do CCAMLR do?
Control the commercial fisheries in the Southern Ocean, taking into account the species being fished and their prey and predator species. They monitor all fishing in the region
What must all vessels in the CCAMLR region participate in?
Monitoring systems to report krill catches
Why are pharmaceutical companies interest in Antarctic species?
For their anti-freeze proteins in the blood, and for how fish slow their heartbeat to save energy in cold environments
Who banned whaling in the Antarctic?
The International Whaling Commission
What is the limit of viability?
The amount of meltwater an ice shelf can take before it begins to weaken and retreat
What area does the Antarctic Treaty apply to?
60 degrees south
What does the Treaty not apply to?
The seas
When was the Whaling Moratorium introduced?
1982
How were whales previously hunted?
Using harpoons and specialist whaling boats
What did Greenpeace do for Antarctic whales?
They launched an anti-whaling campaign shortly after the organisation formed, and Greenpeace ships began confronting whaling fleets
Which countries ignore the moratorium?
Japan, Iceland and Norway
How many whales does Japan hunt each year for ‘research’?
300
How much money can 1 whale make?
$1 million
When was the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary set up?
1994
Who set up the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary?
The International Whaling Commission
What is the aim of the whale sanctuary?
To benefit the long term conservation of whales
How does the sanctuary benefit whales?
By facilitating recovery of depleted whale populations by protecting important areas
How does the whale sanctuary benefit surrounding nations economically?
Provides economic benefits to range of states by providing opportunities to develop non-lethal economic uses of ecotourism and whale watching
How has scientific whaling changed over the years?
It has increased
What is the Madrid Protocol?
The protocol on environmental protection for the Antarctic treaty, protects natural reserves
How successful has the Madrid protocol been?
Mining is prohibited and minerals are protected, so the environment is preserved, and toxic chemicals are prohibited from being discharged into the sea
Why is the Madrid protocol needed?
To provide comprehensive protection for the environment after Russian bases were dumping waste
How many parties have agreed to the Madrid Protocol?
34, with a further 11 signed but not ratified
What is the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals?
A convention for promoting and achieving the protection, scientific study and rational use of seals
When did the seal convention come into place?
1978, after seals were killed by clubbing for their pelts, young seals wanted
What has happened since the seal convention came into place?
Seal populations have recovered, proof that CCAS is a successful international agreement
Why is the seal convention needed?
To recognise that the stocks of Antarctic seals are an important living resource and should not be exploited and depleted
How many parties have agreed to the seal convention?
17
What is the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources?
An international convention with the objective of conserving Antarctic marine life, in response to increasing commercial interest in krill
When was the Conservation of Marine Living Resources brought in?
1982, the same year as the whaling ban
How successful has CCAMLR been?
Seabird mortality has been reduced, protected areas have been established, vulnerable ecosystems managed and challenges of illegal fishing addressed
Why was CCAMLR set up?
Because there was increasing commercial interest in krill
Who enforces CCAMLR?
All vessels are monitored and the policy is implemented by all 25 countries
What is ASOC?
Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition
Who does ASOC represent?
Brings together more than 30 groups so has a wide scope, includes WWF and Wildlife Organisations
Why was ASOC set up?
A US lawyer exposed a secret minerals framework for Antarctica
What categories are ASOC’s current works split into?
Environmental Protection
Wildlife Conservation
Antarctic Governance
How does ASOC plan to tackle Antarctic climate change issues?
Through public advocacy, promoting adaptation strategies, and climate science
What do ASOC seek in terms of protection?
The highest possible level of environmental protection for the Antarctic region and for all wildlife
Which area do ASOC want to be protected?
The Ross Sea and areas for species such as Minke whales and Krill
How important is ASOC’s work in the Ross Sea?
It is striving for it to be a Marine Protected Area and maintaining its diversity and abundant marine life. Almost untouched as it was thousands of years ago, preserved
Antarctica is the driest continent because…
Its’ annual precipitation is 50mm- polar desert
Antarctica is the windiest continent because…
Smooth Antarctic surface allows for fast winds not slowed by surface friction
Antarctica is the coldest continent because…
Average temperature is -49oc (feels colder due to wind chill)
Why does the Antarctic Convergence Zone vary seasonally?
Due to the expansion and contraction of sea ice
Thermohaline Circulation
Salt water moving along gradients creates the global thermohaline circulation
Water moves from hot to cold (convection)
Changes in salinity accelerate these changes
2 main factors that have increased the threat Antarctica faces
Technology- we can now get there
Greater demand for resources- exploiting Antarctica is now economically viable
What are the 4 main threats Antarctica faces?
Climate Change
Fishing and Whaling
Mineral Exploitation
Tourism and Scientific Research
Climate Change: Which parts of Antarctica are cooling?
Which parts aren’t?
East cooling- not near the coastal parts (ocean a radiator)
West melting- likely the East will grow as the West melts
Climate Change: What is the melting of the Antarctic Peninsula causing?
Positive dieback- loss of ice shelves has caused ice to speed up in land
Climate Change: How many tonnes of ice have been lost each year since 1993?
By how much have global sea levels increased as a result?
100 billion tonnes each year
Increased global sea levels by 0.2mm a year
Climate Change: What will partly offset the increase in the rate of ice melt?
Increased snow fall
Climate Change: By how much has Southern Ocean temperatures increased since 1995?
1C
Climate Change: What impacts has the Southern Ocean warming more quickly that the oceans globally had on krill?
Krill populations fallen by up to 80% in last 40 years
Climate Change: Although the melting of ice shelves doesn’t contribute to sea level rise, how do they cause it?
Rate of flow of glaciers behind the ice shelves increases
These glaciers melt = sea level rise
Climate Change: Why might sea ice be expanding on the eastern side of Antarctica?
More snow and rain layering Southern Ocean with a cooler, denser top
More storms = local waters less salty, raises temp. of ice formation
Melting of continental land ice = icebergs- contributes to sea ice formation
Climate Change: What is the problem with the carbonic acid that would be created with increased atmospheric carbon dioxide?
Oceans would become a little more acidic
Could potentially corrode unprotected shells and skeletons- problems with food chain
Climate Change: Why would some argue global trade/ globalisation was responsible for climate change?
Global trade has increased movement of goods- increased fossil fuel consumption
(Antarctica doesn’t benefit from this trade at all, it is instead impacted by the pollution and waste generated from the trade)
Fishing and Whaling: Why are krill so heavily fished around Antarctica?
Fishing restrictions implemented in Northern Hemisphere
2007, catch allowance increased by nearly 600%
Fishing and Whaling: Problems with over fishing of krill?
Impacts food chain
Increases phytoplankton
Fishing and Whaling: When did whaling begin in this area?
1904
Fishing and Whaling: Where was the whale processing station located?
South Georgia
Fishing and Whaling: When was commercial whaling banned?
1986
Mineral Exploitation: Where is there a large amount of coal?
On the coast and in the mountains
Mineral Exploitation: How many barrels of oil do the Ross and Weddell Seas combined hold?
50 billion barrels of oil
Mineral Exploitation: Demand for minerals could cause global ____ in the future
Conflict
Many countries already put in claims as safeguard measures
Tourism and Scientific Research: How many permanent scientific bases are there?
40
Means resources have to be flown or shipped in
Tourism and Scientific Research: What happened with the Argentine navy transport ship in the late 20th century?
It ran aground
Released 250,000 gallons of fuel
Sea birds and krill were killed
(This was a relatively contained oil spill)
Tourism and Scientific Research: What disturbs bird populations?
What will worsen this?
Planes
Will be worsened if Australia opened their runway for tourism
Tourism and Scientific Research: What are the risks posed from tourism?
Contamination and spread of disease
Due to tourist numbers increasing, and little management (as not owned by one nation)
Tourism and Scientific Research: What’s a positive of tourism?
Some profits from cruises donated to NGO’s
Helps protect Antarctica in the future
When was the Antarctic Treaty signed, and enforced from?
1959, enforced from 1961
Key points from Antarctica Treaty articles
Sustainable management of Antarctica’s ecosystems
Regarded as most successful piece of legislation
What is the Antarctic Treaty System?
A combination of the Antarctic Treaty and other related systems
They hold annual meetings
IWC: What caused the issue of whaling to be first publicly broadcast?
How did the public respond?
Greenpeace protesters confronting whaling fleets on the high seas
Demand for whale began to rapidly reduce
IWC: What is the purpose of the International Whaling Commission?
Intergovernmental Organisation
Regulates whaling, ensures whale populations are at sustainable levels
Imposed Global Whaling Moratorium
IWC: When was the global whaling moratorium imposed?
When are whales still allowed to be killed?
1982
For scientific purposes
IWC: Advantages of the moratorium?
Everyone in whaling industry lost out equally- no bias
Whale populations have been able to recover
Easy to spot someone whaling
Raises awareness
IWC: Disadvantages of the moratorium?
Hard to monitor the whole of the Southern Ocean
Some argue that everyone has the right to use Antarctica as it is a global common
Greenpeace argues poorly enforced
IWC: Problems of Japan’s abuse of the system
Other nations may follow
Around 300 whales killed each year
IWC: When was the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary established?
1994
IWC: Why was the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary established?
Provide whales with a refuge from whaling
Allows species to recover from serious overexploitation
IWC: Long term aims of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Develop non-lethal research
Provide economic benefits i.e. whale watching
Increase public awareness of the vulnerability of marine ecosystems
Allow whale populations to recover by protecting their feeding and breeding grounds
IWC: Successes of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Covers most of the Southern Ocean
Non-lethal research means less whales need to be killed in the future
Raises public awareness
Protects feeding and breeding grounds
Finds other economic uses for whales- gives ex-whalers a job
IWC: Failures of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Hasn’t stopped Japan as doesn’t protect against scientific whaling
Doesn’t protect whales outside the protection area
Difficult to monitor such a large area
Only protects areas that are important now which may change with climate change, leaving whales unprotected
Why have NGO’s like SCAR and ASOC been set up?
Do the work governments can’t/ won’t do
Don’t have an agenda
Purpose of Scientific Committee on Antarctica Research
In charge of initiation, promotion, and co-ordination of research on Antarctica
Provide independent scientific advice to inform the Antarctic Treaty System
ASOC: Why was the Antarctica and Southern Ocean Coalition set up?
When was it set up?
Created so NGO’s could have a greater influence on governments at the world stage
1978
ASOC: Examples of NGOs involved
Over 30, including:
WWF
Greenpeace
Friends of the Earth
ASOC: What does their work mainly focus on?
Environmental protection
Monitors environmental change
Ensures legislation is being kept to
ASOC: What 3 main campaigns is it currently focusing on?
Sustainable management of Southern Ocean Fisheries
Establishing a network of marine reserves, including Marine Protected Area status for the Ross Sea
Negotiating a legally binding Polar Code covering all vessels operating in the Southern Ocean
ASOC: Successes
Only NGO working full time to preserve Antarctica and the Southern Ocean
Powerful as it consists of over 30 NGOs
Helps raise public awareness about threats to Antarctica and encourages government involvement
ASOC: Failures
Difficult to monitor the whole of the large area they protect
Work on a lot of projects- don’t focus all of their energy in one place
ASOC: Why are they so interested in protecting the Ross Sea?
Important for the diverse ecosystem present
50% of Ross Sea killer whales
What percentage of freshwater does Antarctica store?
70%
What are some of the ‘rules’ of the Antarctic Treaty?
Only peaceful reasons- no army bases/ weapons
Cooperation on scientific research- avoids unnecessary scientific research
Should remain as a global commons- countries cannot make individual claims
Doesn’t apply to seas… overexploitation likely
Which organisations make up the Antarctic Treaty System?
International Whaling Commission
United Nations Environment Programme
United Nations Environment Programme Key Points
Reports activity in Antarctica to UN
Aims to stop illegal fishing and converse ecosystem- protected areas
Limited by countries i.e. Russia
Piece of legislation protecting Minerals
1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctica Treaty
1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctica Treaty key points
Banned all mining
Rules on….
Regulating waste disposal
Preventing pollution
Protecting plants and animals- environmental impact assessment required before new activities conducted
Why is it difficult to prevent the damage caused?
Most damage not caused in Antarctica
i.e. Pollution or ghg’s
What activities are their for tourists
. Hiking
. Ice climbing
. Kayaking
. Scuba diving
What % of tourists are American
34%
What is staff to passenger ratio
1:20
What % of previous experience must guides have
75%
What % fly directly to the centre
1%
How much for a luxury stay in Antarctica
£84,000
What is the max carrying capacity for vessels
500
What is distance should tourists be from animals
5-100m
What is distance should vehicles be from animals
200m
What is the max number of people onshore
100
What is the max number of small boats that can land at a time
5
How many small boat landings a day
1-3
