Behavioral Sciences Ch 4. Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards
Information processing model
States that the brain and codes, stores, and retrieves information much like a computer, four key pillars:
thinking requires sensation, encoding, storage of stimuli
stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (rather than a responded to automatically) to be useful in decision-making
decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (also called situational modification)
problem-solving is dependent not only on the persons cognitive level, but also on the context and complexity of the problem
Piget’s stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
Sensorimotor stage
Focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs three circular reactions, object permanence ends the stage, about 0-2 years old
Circular reactions
Repetitive behaviors, two types: primary and secondary
Object permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even went out of view, beginning of representational thought
Preoperational stage
Focuses on the symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration, lasts from about 2-7 years old
Symbolic thinking
The ability to pretend, play make-believe, and have an imagination
Egocentrism
The inability to imagine what another person may feel or think
Centration
The tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or inability to understand the concept of conservation
Concrete operational stage
Focuses on understanding the feelings of others in manipulating physical (concrete) objects, understands conservation, engage in logical thought with concrete objects, typically 7-11 years old
Formal operational stage
Focuses on abstract thought and problem-solving, starts around 11 years old
Biological factors that affect cognition
Organic brain disorders, genetic and chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements, and drug use
Study of cognition
Our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world
Dual coding theory
States of both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information, builds redundancy and increases the chance that the information can be retrieved and used effectively when cued
Cognitive development
The development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan
Jean Piaget
One of the most influential figures in developmental psychology, divided life span into four stages of cognitive development
Primary circular reactions
The repetition of body movement that originally occurred by chance
Secondary circular reactions
Occurs when manipulation is focused on some thing outside the body, often because the child gets a response from the environment
Representational thought
The creation of mental representations of external objects or events, object permanence is the beginning
Conservation
A logical thinking ability that allows a person to determine that a certain quantity will remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size
Culture and cognitive development
Very much related, culture determines what one is expected to learn, rate of development also varies culture to culture
Lev Vygotsky
Prominent educational psychologist, propose that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his or her culture, including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language
Time-based perspective memory
The ability to remember to perform a task at a specific time in the future, declines with age
Fluid intelligence
Consists of problem-solving skills, peaks in early adulthood
Crystallized intelligence
Related to the use of learned skills and knowledge, peaks in middle adulthood
Activities of daily living
Eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, and ambulation, ability to function in these activities is linked to a decline in intellectual abilities
Dementia
Often begins with impaired memory, but later progresses to impaired judgment and confusion, personality changes also common, common cause is Alzheimer’s disease but another is vascular dementia caused by high blood pressure and repeated microscopic clots in the brain
Craniofacial features of Fetal Alcohol Syndrom
Skin folds of the corners of the eyes, low nasal bridge, short nose, indistinct philtrum, small head circumference, small eye-opening, small mid face, thin upper lip
Delirium
Rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and caused my medical causes such as electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, a drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain
Problem solving
Requires identification and understanding of the problem, generation of potential solutions, testing of potential solutions, and evaluation of results
Mental set
A pattern of approach for a given problem, an inappropriate mental set may negatively impact problem-solving
Functional fixedness
The tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized, which may create barriers to problem-solving
Problem solving types
Trial and error, algorithms, deductive reasoning, and inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning
aka top down reasoning, deriving conclusions from known general rules
Inductive reasoning
aka bottom up reasoning, driving generalizations/conclusions from evidence
Heuristics
Short cuts or rules of thumb used to make a decision
Biases
Exist when an experimenter a decision makers unable to objectively evaluate information
Intuition
A gut feeling regarding a particular decision, can often be attributed to experience with similar situations
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
Proposes seven areas of intelligence including: linguistic, logical mathematical, musical, visual spatial, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal
Trial and error
A less sophisticated type of problem solving in which various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work, only effective when there are relatively few possible solutions
Algorithm
Formula or procedure for solving certain type of problem, can be mathematical or a set of instructions, designed to automatically produce the desired solution
Availability heuristic
Use when we try to decide how likely something is, we make her decision based on how easily similar instances can be imagined
Representativeness heuristic
Involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit into the prototypical, stereotypical, representative image of the category
Base rate fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
Disconfirmation principal
When evidence obtained from testing demonstrates that the solution does not work and the solution should be discarded
Confirmation bias
The tendency to focus on information that fits an individuals beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them, contributes to overconfidence
Overconfidence
A tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and believes is infallible
Belief perseverance
Refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
Recognition primed decision model
What more accurately describes some intuition, when a brain is actually sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern, the person has gained an extensive level of experience that he or she is able to access without awareness
Emotion
Emotion is the subjective experience of a person in a certain situation, will influence how a person thinks and makes decisions
IQ
Intelligence quotient, measurement of intelligence, many versions over the years
IQ equation
IQ=mental age/chronological age x 100
States of consciousness
Alertness, sleep, dreaming, and altered states of consciousness
Alertness
The state of being awake and able to think, perceived, process, and expressed information, beta and alpha waves predominate on electroencephalography (EEG), higher cortisol levels maintained by neurological circuits in the prefrontal cortex that communicates with the reticular formation to keep the cortex awake and alert
Sleep
Very important for health of the brain and body, multiple stages
Stage 1 sleep
Light sleep that is dominated by theta waves on EEG
Stage 2 sleep
Slightly deeper sleep in stage one and includes theta waves, sleep spindles, and K complexes
Theta waves
Present during sleep stages 1 and 2, characterized by irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages
Sleep spindles
EEG with a short section of very frequent and high voltaged signals, common in sleep stage 2
K complexes
EEG with a short section where the voltage peaks and then shots down, common in sleep stage 2
Stages 3 and 4
Deep, slow wave sleep (SWS), delta waves predominate EEG, most sleep-wake disorders occur during these stages, dreaming in SWS focuses on consolidating declarative memories, increased growth hormone release
Non rapid eye movement sleep
NREM sleep - stages 1-4
Rapid eye movement sleep
REM sleep - aka paradoxical sleep, the mind appears close to awake on EEG, but the person in asleep, eye movements and body paralysis occur in this stage, dreaming in REM focuses on consolidating procedural memories
Sleep cycle
Approximately 90 minutes for adults, normally Stage 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or just 1-2-3-4-REM, although REM more frequent towards the mroning
Melatonin
Released by the pineal gland (controlled by hypothalamus which has connections to retina), results in sleepiness, release triggered by changes in light in the evening, serotonin derived
Cortisol
Promotes wakefulness, levels increase in the early morning, released from adrenal cortex in presence of ACTH from anterior pituitary (which is released in presence of CRF from hypothalamus
Circadian rhythms
Internally generated rhythms that regulate our daily cycle of waking and sleeping, normally trend around a 24 hr day
Dreaming
Most (75%) occurs during REM, but some occurs during other sleep stages, many different models hat attempt to account for the content and purpose of dreaming
Dyssomnias
Refer to disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep, includes insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, and sleep deprivation
Parasomnias
Group of sleep disorders that include night terrors and sleepwalking or somnambulism
Sleep disorder groups
Dyssomnias and parasomnias
Hypnosis
A state of consciousness in which individuals appear to be in control of their normal faculties but are in a highly suggestible state, often used for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation, starts with hypnotic induction
Meditation
Involves acquiring of the mind and is often used for relief of anxiety, it is also played a role in many of the worlds religions, theta and slow alpha waves on EEG
Consciousness
One’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s on existence within that world
Altered states
Hypnosis, meditation, drug-induced altered states, can also be caused from sickness, dementia, delirium, and coma
Electroencephalography
Records the average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain
EEG patterns
alpha, beta, delta, and theta waves
Beta waves
Have a high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration, occurs when neurons are randomly firing
EEG awake
Beta and alpha waves
Alpha waves
Occur when we are awake but with our eyes closed, are somewhat slower than beta waves, also more synchronous than beta waves
Paradoxical sleep
aka REM sleep, ones heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but the individual is asleep
Activation synthesis theory
Dreams are caused by wide spread, random activation of neural circuity, this activation can mimic incoming sneseoy information, and may also consist of pieces of stored memories, current and previous desires, met and unmet needs, and other experiences, the cortex then tries to stitch this unrelated information together, resulting in a dream that is both bizarre and somewhat familiar
Problem solving dream theory
Dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping, dreams are untethered by the rules of the real world and thus allow interpretation of obstacles differently than during waking hours
Cognitive process dream theory
Dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
Insomnia
Difficutly falling asleep or staying asleep, the most common disorder, may be related to anxiety, depression, medications, or disruption to sleep patterns
Narcolepsy
Conditions characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep, symptoms include cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
Cataplexy
A loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger
Sleep paralysis
A sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
Hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
Hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
Sleep apnea
Inability to breathe during sleep, two types: obstructive and central
Obstructive sleep apnea
Occurs when a physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow
Central sleep apnea
Occurs when the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe
Night terrors
Most common in children, periods of intense anxiety that occur during SWS, sympathetic overdrive, difficult to wake
Sleepwalking
aka somnambulism, usually occurs during SWS, no recollection
Sleep deprivation
Results in irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, and slowed reaction time, extreme cases can result in psychosis
REM rebound
An earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep compared to normal that a person experiences after sleeping following sleep deprivation
Hypnotic induction
Where a hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of concentration
Consciousness-altering drug groups
Depressants, stimulants, opiates, and hallucinogens
Depressants
Reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety, include alcohol, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines, promote or mimic GABA activity in the brain
Stimulates
Cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system, increases frequency of action potentials, includes amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy, increase dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin concentration at the synaptic cleft
Opiates/opioids
Include heroin, morphine, opium, and prescription pain medications such as oxycodone and hydrocodone, can cause death by respiratory depression
Hallucinogens
Complex reaction between various neurotransmitters, especially serotonin, typically cause distortions in reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, introspection, increased heart rate and blood pressure, dilation of pupils, sweating, and increased body temperature, Includes lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote, mescaline, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms
Marijuana
Has depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effectives, active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol
Drug addiction
Mediated by the mesolimbic pathway, which includes the nucleus accumbent, medial forebrain bundle, and ventral segmental area, dopamine is the main neurotransmitter in this pathway
Mesolimbic reward pathway
Mediates drug addition, one of four dopaminergic pathways in the brain that is normally involved in motivation and emotional response, gambling and falling in love also activate this pathway
Nucleus accumbens
NAc - in mesolimbic reward pathway
Medial forebrain bundle
MFB - connections the nucleus accumbent and the central segmental area
Ventral tegmental area
VTA - in mesolimbic reward pathway
Alcohol
Increases activity of the GABA receptor that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane, causes generalized brain inhibition resulting in diminished arousal at moderate doses, this including inhibiting part of the brain that prevents inappropriate behavior, increases dopamine levels causing a sense of mild euphoria, logical reasoning and motor skills are affected, one of the most widely used drugs
Alcohol myopia
Inability to recognize consequences of actions, creates very short sighted view of the world
Alcoholism
Rates tend to be higher for those of lower socioeconomic status, but those of LSES enter recovering sooner and at higher rates, runs in families, children of alcoholics potentially suffer from MDD, long term consequences include cirrhosis and liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric or duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal cancer, and brain disorders including Wenicke-Korsakoff syndrom
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrom
Caused by a deficiency in thiamine (vitamin B1) and characterized by severe memory impairment with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills
Barbiturates
Historically used as anxiety reducing and sleep medications, most replaced by benzodiazepines, with alcohol overdose may result in coma or death, increase GABA activity causing sense of relaxation, highly addictive
Benzodiazepines
anxiety reducing and sleep medications, replaced most barbiturates, with alcohol overdose may result in coma or death, increase GABA activity causing sense of relaxation, highly addictive
Amphetamines
Increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse and decreasing their uptake, causes a reduction in appetite and decreased need for sleep, increased heart rate and blood pressure, euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia, prolonged use can result in stroke or brain damage, withdrawal common after use leading to depression, fatigue, and irritability
Cocaine
Decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, causes a reduction in appetite and decreased need for sleep, increased heart rate and blood pressure, euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia, withdrawal common after use leading to depression, fatigue, and irritability, has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties so sometimes used in surgeries but can cause heart attacks and stores when used recreationally
Crack
Form of cocaine that can be smoked, highly addictive
Ecstasy
Acts as a hallucinogen combined with with an amphetamine, causes increased heart rate increase blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, hyperthermia, euphoria, increased alertness, and overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness
Opium
Derived from poppy plant
Opiates
Naturally occurring forms of opium, bind to opioid receptors in the nervous system causing a decreased reaction to pain in a sense of euphoria, can cause death by respiratory suppression
Opioids
Semisythetic derivatives of opium, bind to opioid receptors in the nervous system causing a decreased reaction to pain in a sense of euphoria, can cause death by respiratory suppression
Heroin
An opioid substitute for morphine (an opiate)
Tetrahydrocannabinol
THC - exerts effects by acting at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors, inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity, causes eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, and lowered blood pressure, how high is achieved is unknown
Selective attention
Allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus (one part of the sensorium) while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention
Divided attention
Uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time
Attention
Concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment
Sensorium
The sensory environment
Cocktail party phenomenon
We hear our name across the room when focusing on another conversation, shows that selective attention is probably a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background and if there is one that is particularly important, our attention will shift to them
Language components
Phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics
Phonology
The actual sound of speech
Morphology
The building blocks of works, such as rules for pluralization, past tense, and so forth
Semantics
The meaning of words
Syntax
The rules dictating word order
Pragmatics
The changes in language delivery depending on context, effected by prosody
Nativist (biological) theory
Explains language acquisition as being innate and controlled by the language acquisition device (LAD), credited to linguist Noam Chomsky
Learning (behaviorist) theory
Explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers, proposed by BF Skinner
Social interactionist theory
Explains language acquisition as being caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others, interplay between biological and social processes,
Whorfian (linguistic relativity) hypothesis
States that the lens through which we view and interpret the world is create by language
Speech areas of the brain
Found in the dominant hemisphere, usually the left
Broca’s area
Controls motor function of speech via connections to the motor cortex, damage results in Broca’s aphasia, located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe
Broca’s aphasia
A nonfluent aphasia in which generating each word requires great effort
Wernicke’s area
Controls language comprehension, damage results in Wernicke’s aphasia, located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe
Wernicke’s aphasia
A fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension
Arcuate fasciculus
Connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas, damage results in conduction aphasia, a bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production
Conduction aphasia
The inability to repeat words heard despite intact speech generation and comprehension
Phonemes
Individual speech sounds, 40 in English, others for different languages
Categorical perception
The ability to learn when subtle differences between speech sounds represent a change in meaning or not
Morphemes
Building blocks of language ex. -ed, re-, etc
Prosody
The rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
Babbling
Important precursor to language, occurs during first year and peaks between nine and 12 months
Language development
0-1 year: babbling
12 - 18 months: one word per month
18 months: explosion of language
18 - 20 months: combination of words
2-3 years: longer sentences, vocabulary increases exponentially, errors of growth
Age 5: mastered language
Errors of growth
Where a child applies a grammatical rule in a situation where it does not apply
Language acquisition device
A theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules
Critical period
Period where language development must occur or it won’t, it is more likely a sensitive period
Sensitive period
A time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
