Behavioral Sciences Ch 3. Learning and Memory Flashcards
Habituation
The process of becoming used to a stimulus, where are repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response
Dishabituation
Recovery of a response to a stimulus ever habituation has occurred, can occur when a second stimulus intervenes
Associative learning
A way of pairing together stimuli and responses, or behavior and consequences, includes classical conditioning and operant conditioning
Classical conditioning
A type of associative learning that takes advantage of biological, instinctual response to create associations between two unrelated stimuli, an unconditioned stimulus that produces an instinctive, unconditioned response is paired with a neutral stimulus. With repetition, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response, aka acquisition
Operant conditioning
Links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of those behaviors, associated with BF Skinner
Reinforcement
The process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior
Punishment
Decreases the likelihood of a behavior
Reinforcement schedules
Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval
Variable ratio schedules
Reinforce the behavior after varying number of performances of the behavior, but such that the average number of performances to receive a reward is relatively constant, the fastest for learning a new behavior in the most resistant to extinction
Observational learning
A.k.a. modeling, the acquisition of behavior by watching others
Encoding
The process of putting new information into memory, it can be automatic or effortful, semantic encoding is stronger than both acoustic and visual encoding
Sensory memory
Transient and is based on the neurotransmitter activity, typically lasts less than a second, incredibly detailed representation of our surroundings, maintained by major projection areas (occipital and temporal lobe)
Short term memory
Transient and is based on neurotransmitter activity, typically lasts less than a minute, generally limited in capacity to about 7 items, capacity can be increased by chucking and duration can be extended with maintenance rehearsal, stored in hippocampus
Long-term memory
Requires elaborative rehearsal and is the result of increased neuronal connectivity, primarily controlled by the hippocampus, some very old memories moved back to cerebral cortex
Explicit memory
aka declarative memory, stores facts and stories, can be divided into semantic memory and episodic memory
Declarative memory
aka explicit memory, stores facts and stories, can be divided into semantic memory and episodic memory
Automatic processing
Information that is gained without effort
Effortful processing
aka controlled processing, active memorization, with practice can become automatic
Acoustic encoding
Type of controlled processing where we store it based on the way it sounds
Visual encoding
Type of controlled processing where we store it based on visualizing it
Semantic encoding
Type of controlled processing where we put it in a meaningful context, most successful
Implicit memory
aka non-declarative memory or procedural memory, store skills and conditioning effects
Non-declarative memory
aka implicit memory or procedural memory, store skills and conditioning effects
Semantic networks
Network of interconnected ideas, how the brain organizes ideas where concepts are linked together based on similar meaning
Recognition
Easier than recall, the process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned
Recall
Harder than recognition, the retrieval and statement of previously learned information
Retrieval
The process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained, often based on priming interconnected nodes of the semantic network
Priming
A retrieval cue based on spreading activation, recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to the desired semantic memory
Memories loss
Disorders that can cause memory loss include Alzheimers disease, Korsakoffs syndrome, or agnosia; decay; or interference
Memory subjection
Memories are highly subjective to influence from outside information in mood both at the time of encoding and at recall
Neuroplasticity
When neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli, children’s brains are much more plastic than adults allowing them to recover from traumatic brain injuries way better because their brains can reorganize more easily
Long-term potentiation
Responsible for the conversion of short-term to long-term memory, is the strengthening of neuronal connections resulting from increase neurotransmitter release and adding of receptor sites
Learning
Refers specifically to the way in which we acquire new behaviors
Stimulus
Anything to which an organism can respond to
Unconditioned stimulus
Any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response
Unconditioned response
The innate or reflexive response to an unconditioned stimulus
Neutral stimuli
Stimuli that do not produce a reflexive response
Signaling stimuli
Neutral stimuli that have the potential to be used as a conditioning stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
Normally neutral stimulus that, through association, now causes a reflexive response called a conditioned response
Conditioned response
A reflexive response due to a condition stimulus that was a neutral stimulus prior to association
Extinction
If the condition stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus enough times the organism can become habituated to the condition stimulus
Spontaneous recovery
If an extinct condition stimulus is presented again, we conditioned response can sometimes be exhibited
Generalization
A broadening affect by which a stimulus similar enough to the condition stimulus can also produce the conditioned response
Discrimination
Organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
BF Skinner
Operant conditioning is associated with him, father of behaviorism
Behaviorism
The theory that all behaviors are conditioned
Positive reinforcers
Increase the behavior by adding a positive consequence or incentive following the desired behavior
Negative reinforcers
Increase the frequency of a behavior by removing something unpleasant, can be subdivided into escape learning and avoidance learning
Escape learning
The role of her behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists
Avoidance learning
Meant to prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
Primary reinforcer
A reinforcer that the organism responds to naturally, is based on biological factors
Secondary reinforcer
aka conditioned reinforcer, a reinforcer that would not normally be a reinforcer on its own, but classical conditioning is used to pair the secondary reinforcer with a primary reinforcer to elicit the same response
Discriminative stimulus
Indicates that am award is potentially available, for example a dolphin may associate the presence of a trainer with the possibility of a reward
Positive punishment
Adds an unpleasant consequence to reduce the occurrence of a behavior
Negative punishment
Removal of something pleasant to reduce a behavior
Fixed ratio schedules
Reinforce the behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
Continuous reinforcement
A fixed ratio schedule in which the behavior is rewarded every time it is performed
Fixed interval schedules
Reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specific time has elapsed
Variable interval schedules
Reinforce the behavior the first time that a behavior is performed after a varying interval of time
Shaping
The process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors, the use of shaping an operant conditioning can allow for the training of extremely complicated behaviors
Latent learning
Learning that occurs without a reward but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
Problem solving
The ability to analyze the situation and respond correctly the first time, instead of a trial and error approach
Preparedness
The predisposition to learn, or not to learn, behaviors based on a species natural abilities and instincts
Instinctive drift
The difficulty in overcoming instinctual behaviors
Mirror neurons
Neurons located in the frontal and parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex and fire both win an individual performs an action and when that individual observe someone else performing that action, largely involved in motor processes but additionally are thought to be related to empathy and vicarious emotions, also play a role in imitative learning
Self reference effect
We tend to recall information best when we can put it into the context of our own lives
Maintenance rehearsal
Repetition of a piece of information to keep it within working memory (to prevent from forgetting) or to store it in short term and eventually long-term memory
Mnemonics
Common ways to memorize information, often acronyms are rhyming phrases that provide a vivid organization of the information we are trying to remember
Method of loci
Memorizing information tactic, involves associating each item in a list with a location along a route through a building that has already been memorized
Peg word system
A memorization tactic, associates numbers with items that rhyme with the resemble the numbers
Chunking
A.k.a. clustering, a memory trick that involves taking individual elements of a large list and grouping them into groups of elements with related meaning
Iconic memory
Visual sensory memory
Echoic memory
Auditory sensory memory
7+-2 rule
Describes the capacity of our short term memory
Hippocampus
Houses short term memory, is responsible for the consolidation of short term memory into long term memory
Working memory
Closely related to short term memory and is similarly supported by the hippocampus, enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information, allows us to do simple math in our heads
Elaborative rehearsal
The association of information to knowledge already stored in the long term memory, one of the ways information is consolidated into the long term memory
Relearning
A way of demonstrating that information has been stored in long-term memory, the ability to re-memorize information much quicker the second time through
Spacing effect
The longer the amount of time between sessions of re-learning the greater the retention of the information later on
Spreading activation
When one note of our semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts around it are unconsciously activated
Context effects
Memories aided by being in a physical location where in coding took place, it has been shown that a person will score better when they take an exam in the same room in which they learned the information
State dependent memory
aka state dependent effect, a person in a certain mental state will recall information better in that same mental state
Serial position effect
Retrieval cue that appears well learning list, participants have a much higher recall for both the first few and last few items on the list
Primacy and recency effect
The tendency to remember early and late items of a list, recency effect likely a result of the last items on the list still being in short-term memory on initial recall
Alzheimer’s disease
A degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of acetylcholine and neurons that link to the hippocampus, marked by progressive dementia, memory loss, and atrophy of the brain, typically memory loss in retrograde fashion, microscopic findings include neurofibrillary tangles and beta amyloid plaques
Beta amyloid plaques
Common in Alzheimer’s disease, incorrectly folded copies of the amyloid precursor protein
Sundowning
A phenomenon that occurs in individuals with middle to late stage Alzheimer’s that involves an increase in dysfunction in the late afternoon and evening
Korsakoff syndrome
And form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain, marked by both retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia, common symptom is confabulation
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of previously formed memories
Anterograde amnesia
Inability to form new memories
Confabulation
The process of creating vivid but fabricated memories typically thought to be an attempt made by the brain to fill in the gaps of missing memories
Agnosia
The loss of the ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds, usually caused by physical damage to the brain caused by a stroke or neurological disorder such as multiple sclerosis
Memory decay
When memories that are simply lost naturally overtime as the Nuro chemical trace of short term memory fades
Interference
A.k.a. interference affect, a retrieval error caused by the existence of other, usually similar, information
Proactive interference
When old information is interfering with new learning
Retroactive interference
The new information causes forgetting of old information
Memory loss and aging
Contrary to popular belief, does not necessarily lead to significant memory loss
Prospective memory
Remembering to perform a task at some point in the future
Misinformation effect
When outside sources alter how one encodes or recalls a memory
Source monitoring error
Involves confusion between semantic and episodic memory, a person remembers the details of an event but confuses the context under which those details were gained
Synaptic pruning
We can all connections are broken well strong ones are bolstered, increasing the efficiency of our brains ability to process information as we get older
Long term potentiation
As a stimulus is repeated, the stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing their neurotransmitters and at the same time receptor sites on the other side of the synapse increase, increasing receptor density, this strengthening is the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory
