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MCAT > Behavioral Sciences Ch 1: Biology and Behavior > Flashcards

Behavioral Sciences Ch 1: Biology and Behavior Flashcards

1
Q

Neuropsychology

A

The study of the connection between the nervous system and behavior, focuses on the function of various brain regions

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2
Q

Neurons of the nervous system

A

Sensory, motor, and interneurons

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3
Q

Sensory neurons

A

aka afferent neurons, transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain via afferent fibers

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4
Q

Motor neurons

A

aka efferent neurons, transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands via efferent fibers

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5
Q

Interneurons

A

Found between other neurons and are the most numerous, located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord and are often linked to reflexive behavior

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6
Q

Reflex arcs

A

Use interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of the stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain, ex. allows for foot to move after stepping on a nail without brain

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7
Q

Nervous system

A

Make up of the central and peripheral nervous systems

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8
Q

Central nervous systems

A

CNS - includes brain and spinal cord

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9
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

PNS - made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside of brain and spinal cord including most cranial and spinal nerves and olfactory and optic nerves, connects the CNS to the rest of the body, divided into somatic and autonomic divisions

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10
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

Voluntary, consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles

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11
Q

Atomonomic nervous system

A

Automatic, regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular secretions, and temperature control via involuntary muscles and glands, divided into the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches

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12
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

Rest and digest, antagonistic of the sympathetic nervous system, goal to conserve energy, functions: constricts pupils, stimulates flow of saliva, constricts bronchi, slows heartbeat, stimulates peristalsis, stimulates bile release, contracts bladder

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13
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A

Fight or flight, antagonists of the parasympathetic nervous system, activated by stress, functions: dilates the pupils for maximum light intake, inhibits salivation, relaxes bronchi, accelerates heartbeat, stimulates sweating and piloerection, inhibits peristalsis and secretion, stimulates glucose production and release, releases of epinephrine and norepinephrine, inhibits bladder contraction, stimulates orgasm, redistributes blood to muscles for locomotion

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14
Q

Brain subdivisions

A

Hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

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15
Q

Hindbrain

A

Contains the cerebellum, medulla obligate, and reticular formation, develops from rhombencephalon, controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking, manages vital functioning for survival

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16
Q

Midbrain

A

Contains the inferior and superior colliculi, controls sensorimotor reflexes, receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body, develops from the mesencephalon

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17
Q

Forebrain

A

Developed from the prosencephalon, associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes, contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex, developed later than the brainstem, associated with emotion and memory

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18
Q

Studying the brain methods

A

Lesions, electrical stimulation, activity recording (such as EEG), and regional cerebral blood flow

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19
Q

Electroencephalography

A

EEG - involves placing several electrodes on the scalp and monitoring electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons

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20
Q

Regional cerebral blood flow

A

Detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain, uses radioactive gas (harmless) and brain imaging

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21
Q

Thalamus

A

Relay station for sensory information, sorts than transmits incoming sensory impulses to appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex

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22
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Maintains homeostasis and integrates with the endocrine system through the hypophyseal portal system that connects it to the anterior pituitary, primary regulator of the autonomic nervous system, hunger and thirst, emotional experiences, aggressive and sexual behavior, the four F’s: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fornication

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23
Q

Hypophyseal portal system

A

Connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland

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24
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

“Master” part of the gland because it releases hormones that regulate actives of endocrine glands, controlled by the hypothalamus

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25
Q

Basal ganglia

A

Smoothens movements and helps maintain postural stability, does this by relaying info via the extrapyramidal system, destruction of it could lead to Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, and OCD

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26
Q

Limbic system

A

A group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory, contains the septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus

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27
Q

Septal nuclei

A

Involved with feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior, and addiction

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28
Q

Amygdala

A

Controls aggressive and defensive behaviors including fear and rage

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29
Q

Hippocampus

A

Consolidates memories and communicates with other parts of the limbic system through an extension called the fornix, forms long-term memories and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex

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30
Q

Fornix

A

Long projection/extension of hippocampus, helps it communicate with other parts of the limbic system

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31
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

aka neocortex, outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres, divides into four lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe, complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes

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32
Q

Frontal lobe

A

Controls executive function, impulse control, long-term planning, motor function, and speech production, broken into prefrontal cortex and motor cortex, also contains Broca’s area

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33
Q

Pariental lobe

A

Located to the rest of the frontal lobe, controls sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; station processing; orientation; and manipulation

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34
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Vision processing via visual cortex, located at the very rear of the brain, have been implicated in learning and motor control also

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35
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Controls sound processing, speech perception, memory, and emotion, is the location of the auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area

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36
Q

Cerebrum divisions

A

Left and right cerebral hemispheres

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37
Q

Cerebral hemispheres

A

Main brain division, left hemisphere dominant for language

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38
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Released by neurons to carry a signal to another neuron or effector

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39
Q

Effector

A

A muscle fiber or a gland

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40
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Used by the peripheral nervous system to move muscles, the parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system (in the ganglia and innervating sweat glands), and the central nervous system for attention and arousal

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41
Q

Dopamine

A

Maintains smooth movements and steady posture, a catecholamine, high concentrations usually in the basal ganglia, high levels schizophrenia, low levels Parkinson’s disease

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42
Q

Endorphins

A

A neuromodulator that acts as natural painkillers

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43
Q

Enkephalins

A

A neuromodulator that acts as natural painkillers

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44
Q

Epinephrine

A

Maintain wakefulness and alertness and mediates fight or flight responses, tends to act as a hormone, released by the adrenal medulla and cause a physiological change associated with the sympathetic nervous system, a catecholamine, classified as monoamines or biogenic amines

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45
Q

Norepinephrine

A

Maintain wakefulness and alertness and mediates fight or flight responses, tends to act as a classical neurotransmitter, released by the adrenal medulla and cause a physiological change associated with the sympathetic nervous system, a catecholamine, classified as monoamines or biogenic amines, low levels associated with depression, high levels associated with anxiety and mania

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46
Q

Gamma-aminobutyric acid

A

GABA - brain stabilizer (CNS) by producing inhibitory postsynethic potentials by causing hyper polarization

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47
Q

Glycine

A

Brain stabilizer (CNS) by increasing chloride influx into the neuron causing hyper polarization

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48
Q

Glutamate

A

Excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain (CNS)

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49
Q

Serotonin

A

Modulates mood, sleep patterns, eating patterns, and dreaming, a monoamine/biogenic amine, high levels associated with manic states and low levels associated with depression

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50
Q

Endocrine and nervous system connection

A

Tied to the nervous system through the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and some hormones

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51
Q

Testosterone

A

Mediates sexual drive, increases aggressive behavior, released by adrenal cortex, also produced by testes

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52
Q

Estrogen

A

Mediates sexual drive, released by the adrenal cortex, also produced in the ovaries

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53
Q

Nature vs nurture

A

Classic debate regarding the relative contributions of genetics and environment to an individuals traits, for most traits, both play a role, relative effects are studied

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54
Q

Family studies

A

Looks at the relative frequency of a trait within a family compared to the general population

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55
Q

Twin studies

A

Compare concordance rates between monozygotic and dizygotic twins

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56
Q

Adoption studies

A

Compare similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents, relative to similarities with their biological parents

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57
Q

Nervous system development

A

Occurs via neurulation, notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, creating the neural tube topped with neural crest cells

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58
Q

Neural tube

A

Becomes the central nervous system as it invaginates and folds on itself

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59
Q

Neural crest cells

A

Spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many tissue types

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60
Q

Primative reflexes

A

Exist in infants and should disappear with age, most serve as a protective role, can reappear in certain nervous system disorders, include rooting, moro, babinski, and grasping relex

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61
Q

Rooting reflex

A

Infant turns his or her head toward anything that brushes the cheek

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62
Q

Moro reflex

A

Infant extends the arms, then slowly retracts them and cries in response to a sensation of falling

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63
Q

Babinski reflex

A

The big toe is extended and the other toes fan in response to the brushing of the sole of the foot

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64
Q

Grasping reflex

A

The infant grabs anything put into his or her hand

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65
Q

Developmental milestones

A

Give an indication of what skills and abilities a child should have at a given age, most children adhere closely to these milestones deviating by only one or two months

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66
Q

Motor skills progression

A

Gross and fine motor abilities progress head to toe and core to periphery

67
Q

Social skills development

A

Social skills shift from parent oriented to self oriented to other oriented

68
Q

Language developmen

A

Language skills become increasingly complex

69
Q

Franz Gall

A

Earliest theories of behavior, developed phrenology, through psychological attributes could be measured by feeling or measuring the skull because bulges would signify well-developed traits/regions, wrong but generated a lot of further research

70
Q

Pierre Flourens

A

Studied functions of the major sections of the brain by extrication on rabbits and pigeons

71
Q

Extirpation

A

aka ablation, a part of the brain is surgically removed and behavioral consequences are observed

72
Q

William James

A

Father of American psychology, formed theory of functionalism

73
Q

Functionalism

A

A system of though in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment

74
Q

John Dewey

A

Thought psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it functions to adapt to the environment, also functional psychologists, reflex arc

75
Q

Paul Broca

A

Examined the behavioral deficits of those with brain damage, demonstrated that specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions, Broca’s area is named after him

76
Q

Hermann von Helmholtz

A

First to measure the speed of a nerve impulse, led psychology to field of natural sciences

77
Q

Sir Charles Sherrington

A

First inferred the existence of synapses

78
Q

Brainstem

A

Composed of the hindbrain and midbrain, developed earlier than the forebrain, primitive region of the brain

79
Q

Meninges

A

Thick sheath of connective tissues that covers the brain to protect it, keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid, composed of the dura mater (thick), the arachnoid mater (spider webbed), and the pia mater (very thin)

80
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A

Aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest, produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles of the brain

81
Q

Ventricles

A

Internal cavities of the brain that are lined by specialized cells that produce cerebrospinal fluid

82
Q

Cerebellum

A

Refined motor movements such as posture, balance, and body movement

83
Q

Medulla oblongata

A

Vital functioning including breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion

84
Q

Reticular formation

A

Arousal and alertness

85
Q

Original three swellings of the prenatal brain

A

Prosencephalon, rhombencephalon, and mesencephalon

86
Q

Rhombencephalon

A

Develops into hindbrain, divides into myelencephalon and the metancephalon during embryonic development

87
Q

Myelencephalon

A

Piece of the divided rhombencephalon, becomes the medulla oblongata

88
Q

Metancephalon

A

Piece of the divided rhombencephalon, becomes the pons and cerebellum

89
Q

Pons

A

Located above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla

90
Q

Mesencephalon

A

Forms the midbrain

91
Q

Colliculi

A

The two prominent nuclei in the midbrain, the superior and inferior colliculus

92
Q

Superior colliculus

A

Receives visual sensory input

93
Q

Inferior colliculus

A

Receives sensory information from the auditory system

94
Q

Prosencephalon

A

Develops into the forebrain, divides into the telencephalon and diencephalon during prenatal development

95
Q

Telencephalon

A

Part of the divided prosencephalon, forms the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system

96
Q

Diencephalon

A

Part of the divided prosencephalon, forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and the pineal gland

97
Q

Cortical maps

A

Electrically stimulating and recording brain activity

98
Q

Computed tomography

A

CT - multiple X-rays are tased at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue

99
Q

Positron emission tomography

A

Radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, it dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged

100
Q

Magnetic resonance imaging

A

Uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body

101
Q

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

A

Same base technique as MRI but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow

102
Q

Hypothalamus subdivisions

A

Lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus

103
Q

Material hypothalamus

A

LH - hunger center, has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids

104
Q

Ventromedial hypothalamus

A

VMH - Satiety center, provides signals to stop eating, lesions to this area lead to obesity

105
Q

Anterior hypothalamus

A

Controls sexual behavior, sleep, and body temperature

106
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release for hypothalamic hormones (antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin)

107
Q

Antidiuretic hormone

A

ADH - aka vasopressin

108
Q

Pineal gland

A

Key player in several biological rhythms, secretes melatonin, receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight

109
Q

Melatonin

A

Regulates circadian rhythms

110
Q

Extrapyramidal system

A

Gathers information about body position and carries this information to the central nervous system

111
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

A chronic illness associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia

112
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

Not being able to establish new long-term memories where is memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact

113
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

Loss of events that transpired before brain injury

114
Q

Gyri

A

Bumps on the brain to help increase surface area

115
Q

Sulci

A

Grooves on the brain to help increase surface area

116
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A

Manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions, also processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning, communicates with reticular formation to regulate attention and alertness, association area

117
Q

Association area

A

An area that integrates input from diverse brain regions

118
Q

Projection areas

A

Areas which perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual or motor tests

119
Q

Primary motor cortex

A

Located on the precentral gyrus and initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles, projection area

120
Q

Precentral gyrus

A

Just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes?

121
Q

Broca’s area

A

Important for speech production, found only in dominant hemisphere

122
Q

Sematosensory Cortex

A

Located on the post central gyrus and is involved in somatosensory information processing, the destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain

123
Q

Postcentral gyrus

A

Just behind the central sulcus

124
Q

Visual cortex

A

aka striate cortex, visual processing

125
Q

Auditory cortex

A

Primary site of most sound processing, including speech, music, and other sound information

126
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

Language reception and comprehension

127
Q

Contralateral communication

A

When one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body

128
Q

Ipsilateral communication

A

When one side of the brain communicates with the same side of the body

129
Q

Dominant hemisphere

A

Usually left, primarily analytic in function, language, logic, and math, language production, language comprehension

130
Q

Non-dominant hemisphere

A

Usually right, associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing

131
Q

Dominant hemisphere visual system

A

Letters, words

132
Q

Non-dominant hemisphere visual system

A

Faces

133
Q

Dominant hemisphere auditory system

A

Language related sounds

134
Q

Non-dominant hemisphere auditory system

A

Music

135
Q

Dominant hemisphere language

A

Speech, reading, writing, arithmetic

136
Q

Non-dominant hemisphere language

A

Emotions and tone

137
Q

Dominant hemisphere movement

A

Complex voluntary movement

138
Q

Non-dominant hemisphere movement

A

-

139
Q

Dominant hemisphere spatial processes

A

-

140
Q

Non-dominant hemisphere spatial processes

A

Geometry, sense of direction

141
Q

Catecholamines

A

Closely related neurotransmitters (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine), similar in molecular composition and are classified as monoamines or biogenic amines, all play important role in emotions

142
Q

Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

A

Many cases see either too much dopamine or an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain

143
Q

Neuromodulators

A

aka neuropeptides, peptides involved in neurotransmission, relatively slow, longer effects on postsynaptic cell

144
Q

Hormone

A

Chemical messenger of the endocrine system

145
Q

Pituitary gland

A

Located at the base of the brain is divided into two parts: the anterior and the posterior, sometimes referred to as the master gland

146
Q

Adrenal glands

A

On top of the kidneys and are divided into the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex

147
Q

Adrenal medulla

A

Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system

148
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

Produces corticosteroids and sex hormones

149
Q

Corticosteroids

A

Type of hormone, ex. cortisol

150
Q

Cortisol

A

Stress hormone produced by the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland

151
Q

Innate behavior

A

Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience

152
Q

Learned behavior

A

Not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment

153
Q

Adaptive value

A

The extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species thus leading to adaption through natural selection

154
Q

Concordance rates

A

The likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait in a a twin study

155
Q

Neurulation

A

When the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds, leading edges of the fold are called the neural crest and the rest closes to form the neural tube

156
Q

Alar plate

A

Differentiates into sensory neurons, part of the neural tube

157
Q

Basal plate

A

Differentiates into motor neurons, part of the neural tube

158
Q

Reflex

A

A behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input

159
Q

Gross motor skills

A

Incorporate movement from large muscle grounds and whole body motion such as sitting, crawling, and walking

160
Q

Fine motor skills

A

Involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement, include tracking motion, drawing, catching, and waving

161
Q

Stranger anxiety

A

Fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals, develops at about 7 months

162
Q

Separation anxiety

A

Fear of being separated from the parental figure, develops at about a year

163
Q

Parallel play

A

Children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior, occurs at about two years old

MCAT (67 decks)

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