Behavioral Sciences Ch 1: Biology and Behavior Flashcards
Neuropsychology
The study of the connection between the nervous system and behavior, focuses on the function of various brain regions
Neurons of the nervous system
Sensory, motor, and interneurons
Sensory neurons
aka afferent neurons, transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain via afferent fibers
Motor neurons
aka efferent neurons, transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands via efferent fibers
Interneurons
Found between other neurons and are the most numerous, located predominantly in the brain and spinal cord and are often linked to reflexive behavior
Reflex arcs
Use interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of the stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain, ex. allows for foot to move after stepping on a nail without brain
Nervous system
Make up of the central and peripheral nervous systems
Central nervous systems
CNS - includes brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
PNS - made up of nerve tissue and fibers outside of brain and spinal cord including most cranial and spinal nerves and olfactory and optic nerves, connects the CNS to the rest of the body, divided into somatic and autonomic divisions
Somatic nervous system
Voluntary, consists of sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin, joints, and muscles
Atomonomic nervous system
Automatic, regulates heartbeat, respiration, digestion, glandular secretions, and temperature control via involuntary muscles and glands, divided into the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches
Parasympathetic nervous system
Rest and digest, antagonistic of the sympathetic nervous system, goal to conserve energy, functions: constricts pupils, stimulates flow of saliva, constricts bronchi, slows heartbeat, stimulates peristalsis, stimulates bile release, contracts bladder
Sympathetic nervous system
Fight or flight, antagonists of the parasympathetic nervous system, activated by stress, functions: dilates the pupils for maximum light intake, inhibits salivation, relaxes bronchi, accelerates heartbeat, stimulates sweating and piloerection, inhibits peristalsis and secretion, stimulates glucose production and release, releases of epinephrine and norepinephrine, inhibits bladder contraction, stimulates orgasm, redistributes blood to muscles for locomotion
Brain subdivisions
Hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
Hindbrain
Contains the cerebellum, medulla obligate, and reticular formation, develops from rhombencephalon, controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes such as sleeping and waking, manages vital functioning for survival
Midbrain
Contains the inferior and superior colliculi, controls sensorimotor reflexes, receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body, develops from the mesencephalon
Forebrain
Developed from the prosencephalon, associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes, contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex, developed later than the brainstem, associated with emotion and memory
Studying the brain methods
Lesions, electrical stimulation, activity recording (such as EEG), and regional cerebral blood flow
Electroencephalography
EEG - involves placing several electrodes on the scalp and monitoring electrical activity generated by larger groups of neurons
Regional cerebral blood flow
Detects broad patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain, uses radioactive gas (harmless) and brain imaging
Thalamus
Relay station for sensory information, sorts than transmits incoming sensory impulses to appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus
Maintains homeostasis and integrates with the endocrine system through the hypophyseal portal system that connects it to the anterior pituitary, primary regulator of the autonomic nervous system, hunger and thirst, emotional experiences, aggressive and sexual behavior, the four F’s: fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fornication
Hypophyseal portal system
Connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland
Anterior pituitary
“Master” part of the gland because it releases hormones that regulate actives of endocrine glands, controlled by the hypothalamus
Basal ganglia
Smoothens movements and helps maintain postural stability, does this by relaying info via the extrapyramidal system, destruction of it could lead to Parkinson’s disease, schizophrenia, and OCD
Limbic system
A group of neural structures primarily associated with emotion and memory, contains the septal nuclei, amygdala, and hippocampus
Septal nuclei
Involved with feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior, and addiction
Amygdala
Controls aggressive and defensive behaviors including fear and rage
Hippocampus
Consolidates memories and communicates with other parts of the limbic system through an extension called the fornix, forms long-term memories and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex
Fornix
Long projection/extension of hippocampus, helps it communicate with other parts of the limbic system
Cerebral cortex
aka neocortex, outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres, divides into four lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe, complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes
Frontal lobe
Controls executive function, impulse control, long-term planning, motor function, and speech production, broken into prefrontal cortex and motor cortex, also contains Broca’s area
Pariental lobe
Located to the rest of the frontal lobe, controls sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain; station processing; orientation; and manipulation
Occipital lobe
Vision processing via visual cortex, located at the very rear of the brain, have been implicated in learning and motor control also
Temporal lobe
Controls sound processing, speech perception, memory, and emotion, is the location of the auditory cortex and Wernicke’s area
Cerebrum divisions
Left and right cerebral hemispheres
Cerebral hemispheres
Main brain division, left hemisphere dominant for language
Neurotransmitters
Released by neurons to carry a signal to another neuron or effector
Effector
A muscle fiber or a gland
Acetylcholine
Used by the peripheral nervous system to move muscles, the parasympathetic nervous system and the sympathetic nervous system (in the ganglia and innervating sweat glands), and the central nervous system for attention and arousal
Dopamine
Maintains smooth movements and steady posture, a catecholamine, high concentrations usually in the basal ganglia, high levels schizophrenia, low levels Parkinson’s disease
Endorphins
A neuromodulator that acts as natural painkillers
Enkephalins
A neuromodulator that acts as natural painkillers
Epinephrine
Maintain wakefulness and alertness and mediates fight or flight responses, tends to act as a hormone, released by the adrenal medulla and cause a physiological change associated with the sympathetic nervous system, a catecholamine, classified as monoamines or biogenic amines
Norepinephrine
Maintain wakefulness and alertness and mediates fight or flight responses, tends to act as a classical neurotransmitter, released by the adrenal medulla and cause a physiological change associated with the sympathetic nervous system, a catecholamine, classified as monoamines or biogenic amines, low levels associated with depression, high levels associated with anxiety and mania
Gamma-aminobutyric acid
GABA - brain stabilizer (CNS) by producing inhibitory postsynethic potentials by causing hyper polarization
Glycine
Brain stabilizer (CNS) by increasing chloride influx into the neuron causing hyper polarization
Glutamate
Excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain (CNS)
Serotonin
Modulates mood, sleep patterns, eating patterns, and dreaming, a monoamine/biogenic amine, high levels associated with manic states and low levels associated with depression
Endocrine and nervous system connection
Tied to the nervous system through the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and some hormones
Testosterone
Mediates sexual drive, increases aggressive behavior, released by adrenal cortex, also produced by testes
Estrogen
Mediates sexual drive, released by the adrenal cortex, also produced in the ovaries
Nature vs nurture
Classic debate regarding the relative contributions of genetics and environment to an individuals traits, for most traits, both play a role, relative effects are studied
Family studies
Looks at the relative frequency of a trait within a family compared to the general population
Twin studies
Compare concordance rates between monozygotic and dizygotic twins
Adoption studies
Compare similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents, relative to similarities with their biological parents
Nervous system development
Occurs via neurulation, notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, creating the neural tube topped with neural crest cells
Neural tube
Becomes the central nervous system as it invaginates and folds on itself
Neural crest cells
Spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many tissue types
Primative reflexes
Exist in infants and should disappear with age, most serve as a protective role, can reappear in certain nervous system disorders, include rooting, moro, babinski, and grasping relex
Rooting reflex
Infant turns his or her head toward anything that brushes the cheek
Moro reflex
Infant extends the arms, then slowly retracts them and cries in response to a sensation of falling
Babinski reflex
The big toe is extended and the other toes fan in response to the brushing of the sole of the foot
Grasping reflex
The infant grabs anything put into his or her hand
Developmental milestones
Give an indication of what skills and abilities a child should have at a given age, most children adhere closely to these milestones deviating by only one or two months
Motor skills progression
Gross and fine motor abilities progress head to toe and core to periphery
Social skills development
Social skills shift from parent oriented to self oriented to other oriented
Language developmen
Language skills become increasingly complex
Franz Gall
Earliest theories of behavior, developed phrenology, through psychological attributes could be measured by feeling or measuring the skull because bulges would signify well-developed traits/regions, wrong but generated a lot of further research
Pierre Flourens
Studied functions of the major sections of the brain by extrication on rabbits and pigeons
Extirpation
aka ablation, a part of the brain is surgically removed and behavioral consequences are observed
William James
Father of American psychology, formed theory of functionalism
Functionalism
A system of though in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment
John Dewey
Thought psychology should focus on the study of the organism as a whole as it functions to adapt to the environment, also functional psychologists, reflex arc
Paul Broca
Examined the behavioral deficits of those with brain damage, demonstrated that specific functional impairments could be linked with specific brain lesions, Broca’s area is named after him
Hermann von Helmholtz
First to measure the speed of a nerve impulse, led psychology to field of natural sciences
Sir Charles Sherrington
First inferred the existence of synapses
Brainstem
Composed of the hindbrain and midbrain, developed earlier than the forebrain, primitive region of the brain
Meninges
Thick sheath of connective tissues that covers the brain to protect it, keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid, composed of the dura mater (thick), the arachnoid mater (spider webbed), and the pia mater (very thin)
Cerebrospinal fluid
Aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest, produced by specialized cells that line the ventricles of the brain
Ventricles
Internal cavities of the brain that are lined by specialized cells that produce cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebellum
Refined motor movements such as posture, balance, and body movement
Medulla oblongata
Vital functioning including breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion
Reticular formation
Arousal and alertness
Original three swellings of the prenatal brain
Prosencephalon, rhombencephalon, and mesencephalon
Rhombencephalon
Develops into hindbrain, divides into myelencephalon and the metancephalon during embryonic development
Myelencephalon
Piece of the divided rhombencephalon, becomes the medulla oblongata
Metancephalon
Piece of the divided rhombencephalon, becomes the pons and cerebellum
Pons
Located above the medulla and contains sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla
Mesencephalon
Forms the midbrain
Colliculi
The two prominent nuclei in the midbrain, the superior and inferior colliculus
Superior colliculus
Receives visual sensory input
Inferior colliculus
Receives sensory information from the auditory system
Prosencephalon
Develops into the forebrain, divides into the telencephalon and diencephalon during prenatal development
Telencephalon
Part of the divided prosencephalon, forms the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system
Diencephalon
Part of the divided prosencephalon, forms the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, and the pineal gland
Cortical maps
Electrically stimulating and recording brain activity
Computed tomography
CT - multiple X-rays are tased at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue
Positron emission tomography
Radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body, it dispersion and uptake throughout the target tissue is imaged
Magnetic resonance imaging
Uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Same base technique as MRI but specifically measures changes associated with blood flow
Hypothalamus subdivisions
Lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus
Material hypothalamus
LH - hunger center, has special receptors thought to detect when the body needs more food or fluids
Ventromedial hypothalamus
VMH - Satiety center, provides signals to stop eating, lesions to this area lead to obesity
Anterior hypothalamus
Controls sexual behavior, sleep, and body temperature
Posterior pituitary
Comprised of axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release for hypothalamic hormones (antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin)
Antidiuretic hormone
ADH - aka vasopressin
Pineal gland
Key player in several biological rhythms, secretes melatonin, receives direct signals from the retina for coordination with sunlight
Melatonin
Regulates circadian rhythms
Extrapyramidal system
Gathers information about body position and carries this information to the central nervous system
Parkinson’s disease
A chronic illness associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia
Anterograde amnesia
Not being able to establish new long-term memories where is memory for events that occurred before brain injury is usually intact
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of events that transpired before brain injury
Gyri
Bumps on the brain to help increase surface area
Sulci
Grooves on the brain to help increase surface area
Prefrontal cortex
Manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions, also processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning, communicates with reticular formation to regulate attention and alertness, association area
Association area
An area that integrates input from diverse brain regions
Projection areas
Areas which perform more rudimentary or simple perceptual or motor tests
Primary motor cortex
Located on the precentral gyrus and initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscles, projection area
Precentral gyrus
Just in front of the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes?
Broca’s area
Important for speech production, found only in dominant hemisphere
Sematosensory Cortex
Located on the post central gyrus and is involved in somatosensory information processing, the destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
Postcentral gyrus
Just behind the central sulcus
Visual cortex
aka striate cortex, visual processing
Auditory cortex
Primary site of most sound processing, including speech, music, and other sound information
Wernicke’s area
Language reception and comprehension
Contralateral communication
When one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body
Ipsilateral communication
When one side of the brain communicates with the same side of the body
Dominant hemisphere
Usually left, primarily analytic in function, language, logic, and math, language production, language comprehension
Non-dominant hemisphere
Usually right, associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing
Dominant hemisphere visual system
Letters, words
Non-dominant hemisphere visual system
Faces
Dominant hemisphere auditory system
Language related sounds
Non-dominant hemisphere auditory system
Music
Dominant hemisphere language
Speech, reading, writing, arithmetic
Non-dominant hemisphere language
Emotions and tone
Dominant hemisphere movement
Complex voluntary movement
Non-dominant hemisphere movement
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Dominant hemisphere spatial processes
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Non-dominant hemisphere spatial processes
Geometry, sense of direction
Catecholamines
Closely related neurotransmitters (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine), similar in molecular composition and are classified as monoamines or biogenic amines, all play important role in emotions
Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
Many cases see either too much dopamine or an oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain
Neuromodulators
aka neuropeptides, peptides involved in neurotransmission, relatively slow, longer effects on postsynaptic cell
Hormone
Chemical messenger of the endocrine system
Pituitary gland
Located at the base of the brain is divided into two parts: the anterior and the posterior, sometimes referred to as the master gland
Adrenal glands
On top of the kidneys and are divided into the adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla
Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system
Adrenal cortex
Produces corticosteroids and sex hormones
Corticosteroids
Type of hormone, ex. cortisol
Cortisol
Stress hormone produced by the adrenal cortex in the adrenal gland
Innate behavior
Genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of environment or experience
Learned behavior
Not based on heredity but instead on experience and environment
Adaptive value
The extent to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species thus leading to adaption through natural selection
Concordance rates
The likelihood that both twins exhibit the same trait in a a twin study
Neurulation
When the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow, forming a neural groove surrounded by two neural folds, leading edges of the fold are called the neural crest and the rest closes to form the neural tube
Alar plate
Differentiates into sensory neurons, part of the neural tube
Basal plate
Differentiates into motor neurons, part of the neural tube
Reflex
A behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input
Gross motor skills
Incorporate movement from large muscle grounds and whole body motion such as sitting, crawling, and walking
Fine motor skills
Involve the smaller muscles of the fingers, toes, and eyes, providing more specific and delicate movement, include tracking motion, drawing, catching, and waving
Stranger anxiety
Fear and apprehension of unfamiliar individuals, develops at about 7 months
Separation anxiety
Fear of being separated from the parental figure, develops at about a year
Parallel play
Children will play alongside each other without influencing each other’s behavior, occurs at about two years old
