Research Methods - 1.2 (Class Version) Flashcards
1
Q
Explain Interpretivism
What 3 things are they interested in?
What does Weber call this?
What type of methods do they prefer?
What type of info do they use?
What is an example of this?
A
> Interested in experiences, accounts, and opinions of people
> Interested in putting yourself in someone elses shoes
> Weber calls this Verstehen - (Understanding)
> Prefer methods that produce qualitative data, descriptive
> Info they use makes us feel for what something is like.
> e.g. what it feels like to get Good GCSE’s or if your marriage ends in divorce
2
Q
Explain Positivism (Structural)
See world as what?
These can only be measured with what?
What are examples of sociologists?
What methods do they prefer?
What type of Info do they use?
What is an example of this?
A
> See world made up of scientific laws
> These can only be measured with hard empirical proof
> Examples of Sociologists e.g. Durkheim
> Prefer methods that produce Quantitative data.
> Info in numerical or statistical form
> e.g. NO of Girls who get A* in GCSE’s or % of marriage ending in divorce.
3
Q
What are examples of Data and Methods used by Structuralists
A
> Closed Questionaire
Structured Interviews
Stats
Experiments
4
Q
What are examples of Data and Methods used by
Interpretivists
A
> Open Questionaire
Unstructured Interview
Life Documents
Participant Obs
5
Q
In Social Surveys, what is the procedure?
A
Procedures to ask questions on aspect of human behaviour, sociologist is interested in e.g voting
6
Q
What are the 2 Main RM involved in Social Surveys?
A
Questionnaires and Interview
7
Q
What are the 3 Aspects considered in relation to evaluating the usefulness of Sociological Research Methods?
A
> Practicality
Ethical
Theoretical
8
Q
Give issues that come under Practicality that need to be considered?
A
- Time
- Access
- Funding
- Cost
- Personal Danger
9
Q
Explain Issues that come under Ethical that need to be considered?
A
- Harm
- Deception
- Privacy and Confidentiality
- Social Effects of Research
10
Q
Explain Issues that come under Theoretical that need to be considered?
A
- Objectivity
- Reliability
- Validity
- Representative
11
Q
Define Reliability, in relation to Research Methods?
A
Other sociologists could repeat research and get same results
12
Q
Define Validity, in relation to Research Methods?
A
Provides true picture of topic researched.
13
Q
Define Interviews in relation to Research Methods
A
> Alternative method for questionnaires, usually face 2 face
Useful for getting more detailed info
Allowing more natural and flexible approach to questioning
Vary from un/structured interviews
14
Q
Define Semi-Structured Interview
A
Each interview has same set of questions, but interviewer can also probe for more info.
15
Q
Define Structured Interviews
Who are they preferred by?
A
> Researcher reads out list of fixed questions, using same tone of voice, facial expressions etc
> Structured/formal interviews are preferred by positivists.
16
Q
Explain Positivist views on Structured Interviews, in relation to advantages of Structured Interviews?
A
Positivists believe structured interviews are an unbiased method that can test a hypothesis and examine relationships between variables.
17
Q
GIve the 3 Practical Advantages of Structured Interviews?
A
> Higher response rates than questionnaires, interviewers can persuade people to answer questions.
> Available to clarify misunderstandings.
> Overcome problems with literacy.
18
Q
Give the 2 Ethical Advantages of Structured Interviews?
A
> No issues of deception, due to informed consent.
> Not too personally invasive
19
Q
Give the 3 Theoretical Advantages of Structured Interviews?
A
> Can assess truthfulness of participant - More valid than questionnaires
> Uses quantitative data, more reliable
> More reliable, as researcher can standardise and control them, make sure they’re done with same questions, tone of voice etc.
20
Q
Why do Interpretivists criticise Structured Interviews?
A
Unable to develop relationship of trust and understanding (verstehen)
21
Q
Why do Feminists criticise Structured Interviews?
A
> Feminists say structured interviews are patriarchal, giving a distorted picture of women’s experiences
22
Q
What is Graham’s Feminist criticism of Structured Interviews?
A
> Also say researcher imposes categories on women.
> So difficult for them to express experiences, concealing unequal power relationships between sexes.
23
Q
Give the 3 Practical Disadvantages of Structured Interviews?
A
> Time-Consuming
> More costly than self-completion questionnaires, as interviewers have to be trained and paid.
> Interviewer effect: Person may only give answers they feel are socially acceptable.
24
Q
Explain the Interpretivist Notion of the Imposition Problem, in relation Practical Disadvantages of Structured Interviews?
A
- Can’t express true feelings on topic, as questions and possible answers pre-chosen by researcher.
- Limiting what they are able to say, so may not reflect issues respondents feel are vital
25
Give the Ethical Disadvantages of Structured Interviews?
> Age, Gender of interviewer may affect respondent. Can make respondent feel uncomfortable
26
Explain 2 Theoretical Disadvantage of Structured Interviews?
> Limits possible answers participant give - lower validity compared to unstructured
> Fewer people than questionnaires, less representative
27
Define Unstructured Interviews
> Unstructured interviews are informal, gives respondent more freedom, but researcher asks questions to ensure respondent keeps to subject.
28
What are examples of Unstructured Interview Studies?
> Bernstein - (Speech Codes)
> Hargreaves - (3 Stages to Labelling)
> Dobash & Dobash - (DV)
> Oakley - (Maternity and Childbirth)
29
Explain what occurred in Bernstein’s Study of Speech Codes in Semi Structured Interviews
> Studied kids of different social classes.
> Study found 2 ways of speaking: Restricted Code and Elaborate Code
> MC used Elaborate Code
> WC limited to restricted code
30
Hargreaves Example of Unstructured Interviews
What did he use?
Looked at what?
What 3 stages to Labelling did he find?
> Used unstructured interviews and PO in 2 schools.
> Looked at how teachers label students
> Found 3 stages to labelling: Speculation, Elaboration, Confirmation
31
Explain Interpretivist views on Unstructured Interviews, in relation to advantages of Unstructured Interviews?
Interpretivists argue unstructured interviews enable researchers to get a deeper understanding (verstehen) of individual.
32
Explain Feminist views on Unstructured Interviews, in relation to advantages of Unstructured Interviews?
Feminist favour them as, they allow researcher to build more equal relationship, based on empathy and trust.
33
Give the 2 Practical Advantages of Unstructured Interviews?
> Better response rate than questionnaires
| > Can follow up responses in-depth & develop on new ideas.
34
Explain Rapport and Sensitivity, in relation to Ethical Advantages of Unstructured Interviews?
> Informal so allows interviewer to develop a rapport helping them feel more comfortable and open up, good for sensitive topics.
35
Give the 2 Ethical Advantages of Unstructured Interviews?
> Interviews can refuse to answer questions.
| > Taking part involves informed consent
36
Give the Theoretical Advantages of Unstructured Interviews?
Valid can assess truthfulness of participant
37
Explain Positivist views on Unstructured Interviews, in relation to Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews?
Lack of quantitative data so can’t establish cause-and-effect relationship
38
Give the 4 Practical Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews?
> Direction of interview could be lost
> Time-Consuming. Detail of conversation has to be written down & takes longer to analyse findings. e.g. some Dobash interviews on DV took 12hrs
> Costly, Interviewers have to be trained and paid, means less interviews conducted.
> Interviewer effect: Person may only give answers they feel are socially acceptable.
39
Outline how the Interviewer may identify too closely with interviewees
Researchers Ethnicity and gender may mean they can relate to experiences of a certain group e.g. Black Boys - so can’t be unbiased
40
Explain Rich's idea on how inequalities between interviewer and person, may affect responses, in relation to practical disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews?
e.g. when adults interview kids, their need to please adult may affect results.
41
Give the 2 Ethical Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews?
> Could be intrusive, have emotional effects.
| > Interview on sensitive topics may cause psychological harm.
42
Explain the 2 Theoretical Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews?
> Small samples. Not very representative, harder to generalise.
> Not reliable
43
Define Laboratory Experiments (LE)
Experiments take place in an artificial controlled environment e.g. laboratory.
44
What are examples of Lab Experiment Studies?
> Milgram - (Teacher Shocks Learner)
> Zimbardo - (Stimulated Prison)
> Mayo - (Workers Productivity)
45
Explain Milgram's Study in relation to Laboratory Experiments
What was he interested in?
Teacher was instructed by researcher to do what?
He wanted to test what?
> Was interested in effects of authority on our behaviour.
> Teacher was instructed by researcher to teach learner a range of paired words and to punish learner with a shock if they gave wrong answers.
> He wanted to test how far teacher would go before, adamantly refusing to further shock the learner.
46
Outline Ethical Issues Involved in Milgram’s Experiments
> Harm to Participants
| > Deception
47
Explain Zimbardo's Study in relation to Laboratory Experiments
What was created?
Why did the Experiment had to be ended early?
Many guards showed what?
> A simulated prison was created and 24 volunteers were assigned to the roles of guard or prisoner.
> Experiment had to be ended early, due to the behaviour it was inducing in both guards and prisoners.
> Many of guards showed they enjoyed power they had.
48
Explain Mayo's Study in relation to Laboratory Experiments
Researched what?
Was working with what?
What are examples of variables he changed?
And why?
What happened when he improved conditions and when he worsened them?
He concluded what?
> Researched factors affecting workers productivity in a power plant.
> Was working with 5 female volunteers, who was aware of the experiment
> He changed diff variables e.g. Lighting, heating etc, to see what effect it had on their productivity.
> Their productivity went up, when he improved conditions, and rose even more when they worsened.
> He concluded they weren’t responding to changes, as they wanted to please him.
49
Explain Positivist views on LE's, in relation to advantages of LE?
> Can find scientific laws of cause and effect and determine behaviour e.g. Authority
> Behaviour patterns can be measured quantitatively
50
Give the Practical Advantages of LE?
> Can test major social problem in a small scale environment (e.g. Zimbardo Institutional Aggression
51
Give the 2 Ethical Advantages of LE?
> Usually right for ppl to withdraw
> Sociologist’s personal feelings don’t affect results.
52
Explain the Theoretical Advantages of LE?
> Reliable Method, other scientists can then replicate it.
53
Explain Interpretivists views on LE, in relation to Disadvantages of LE?
- Artificial situation, so has little relevance to real world, human behaviour can’t be explained by cause and effect, but interactions and processes
54
Give the 3 Practical Disadvantages of LE?
> Impossible for researcher to control all variables affecting participant’s behaviour. e.g. feelings, mood etc.
> Hawthorne Effect e.g. Mayo
> Can’t be used to study the past
55
Give 2 Therotical Disadvantages of LE?
> Lacks in validity
| > Not representative
56
Give the 3 Ethical Disadvantages of LE?
> Often difficult for participants to give informed consent e.g. Kids and people with learning difficulties)
> Deception
> Some form of harm may occur e.g. Milgram
57
Define Field Experiments (FE)
Tight control of variables, in irl cases. Researcher manipulates variables to see effect it has on subject, ppl unaware.
58
Explain Interpretivists views on FE's, in relation to advantages of FE?
> Less artificial than lab experiments, producing more valid info.
59
Give the 2 Practical Advantages of FE?
> More realistic, so give more valid pic of effects on ppl’s behaviour
> Can test largescale social problem in small-scale environment
60
Give the Ethical Advantages of FE?
> Less psychologically harmful as it’s a ‘natural’ situation.
61
Give the Theoretical Advantages of FE?
> Valid
62
Explain Positivists views on FE's, in relation to Disadvantages of FE?
Less control over variables.
63
Give the 3 Practical Disadvantages of FE?
> Access issues.
> Not possible for researcher to control all variables that affect participant’s behaviour e.g. mood, feelings, state of health.
> Few situations can be adapted to be FE where influence of only one factor’s tested.
64
Give the 2 Ethical Disadvantages of FE?
> Deception
| > No informed consent
65
Give the 2 Theoretical Disadvantages of FE?
> Not reliable, as of specific social situation studied
> Small samples, not representative
66
What are examples of Field Experiment Studies?
> Rosenthal and Jacobson's - (IQ Tests)
| > Rosenhan - (Schizophrenic Hospital Patients)
67
Explain Rosenthal and Jacobson's Field Experiment in Education?
(Random Fake IQ Tests)
> Researchers gave IQ tests to students.
> 20% of students selected at random
> Teachers told these students would show fast intellectual growth
> In the year between they were re-tested.
> These Students made greatest gains in IQ and progress.
> Teachers believed this label
> Giving them better grades and reports.
> SFP had been created
68
Explain Rosenhan Field Experiment on Schizophrenic Hospital Patients?
12 researchers went to where?
After being diagnosed/admitted they went back to what?
Hospital staff couldn't find what?
Several where what?
2nd part involved asking staff at Hospital what?
They falsely did what?
> 12 researchers went to 12 different mental hospitals in California claiming to be schizophrenic.
> After being diagnosed/admitted they went back to ‘normal’ behaviour to see if they’d get released
> They couldn’t find a single fake patient, so believed they all exhibited symptoms of ongoing mental illness.
> Several were confined for months.
> 2nd part involved asking staff at hospital to detect non-existent "fake" patients.
> They falsely identified huge NO of real patients as impostors.
69
Define the Comparative Method
> Carried out only in mind of sociologist- it’s a thought experiment.
> Doesn’t need researcher to experiment on people.
> Used to find cause and effect relationships
70
How does Comparative Method work?
Identify what?
Compare to what?
> Identify 2 groups of people who are alike in all major respects except for 1 variable we’re interested in
> Compare 2 groups to see if this 1 difference between them has an effect.
71
What are examples of Comparative Method Studies?
> Durkheim’s - (Classical Study of Suicide)
72
Explain Durkheim’s Classical Study of Suicide - Example of Comparative Method
What caused high rates of suicide?
Argued diff religions did what?
What was the difference between Catholicism and Protestanism, in relation to Integration?
From this he predicted what?
Tested what?
> ‘Low levels of integration of individuals into social groups caused high rates of suicide’
> Argued diff religions produced diff levels of integration
> Catholicism producing higher levels than Protestantism.
> From this, he predicted Protestants would’ve higher suicide rate than Catholics.
> Tested his prediction by comparing suicide rates from OS - he was right.
73
4 Advantages of Comparative Method
> Avoids artificiality
> Doesn’t need real people
> Able to study past events
> No ethical problems e.g. harming or deceiving subjects.
74
2 Disadvantages of Comparative Method
> Less control over variables than field experiments. So less certain variables have actually caused something.
> Relies on use of OS which interpretivists argue lack validity
75
What is Non-Participant Observation?
Observing the group or event but not taking part in it.
76
What type of data, does NPO yield?
Quantitative data
77
Who is NPO favoured by?
Positivists
78
What are examples of NPO Studies
> Pritchard - (African Tribes Black Magic) - (Overt)
> Williams - (Teenagers and Cocaine) - (Overt)
> Sewell - (Teachers vs Black Caribbean Boys)
79
Explain Pritchard's Study in relation to NPO
What did the Tribe believe illness was caused by?
> EE Pritchard did overt NPO of tribe in Africa.
> Tribe believed illness was caused by black magic, and cured with consulting oracles, poisoning chickens and blowing water through a pipe.
80
Explain Williams Study in relation to NPO
Since 1982, what did he do?
> Williams used overt NPO
> est 1982 spent weeks, and months “hanging out” with teenage cocaine ring in cocaine bars and street corners etc.
81
Explain Sewell's Study in relation to NPO
How many Schools did Sewell study and using which methods?
Though teachers saw themselves as what?
Black-Caribbean boys were part of what?
How did teachers treat them?
> Sewell did study of 2 secondary schools with NPO and unstructured interviews.
> Though teachers saw themselves as non-racist.
> Black-Caribbean boys were part of 85% of exclusions and they only made up 1/3 of population.
> Teachers were stricter and more controlling of these students
82
Explain Positivists views on NPO, in relation to advantages of NPO?
Less emotionally involved so more objective.
83
Give the 4 Practical Advantages of NPO?
> Detached Method, unbiased not influenced by relationships
> Easier to blend in background, so ppl act naturally
> Less time-consuming and cheaper than PO
> Quantitive data, so can establish cause and effect relationships
84
Give the Ethical Advantages of NPO?
> Less likely to engage in illegal activity
85
Give the Theoretical Advantages of NPO?
> Valid
86
Explain Interpretivists views on NPO, in relation to Disadvantages of NPO?
What problems do they find with NPO?
Interpretivists find problems with NPO, limited depth of understanding and empathy (verstehen)
87
Give the 3 Practical Disadvantages of NPO?
> Problem w/ access do ppl trust a ‘detached observer’?
> Time consuming and expensive
> Overwhelmed w/ data so difficult to record everything.
88
Give the 2 Ethical Disadvantages of NPO?
> Difficult to ensure anonymity of ppl studied as it a small group
> Can make respondents less confident e.g. OFSTED inspections
89
Give the 2 Theoretical Disadvantages of NPO?
> Not reliable other sociologists may not get same results, may record diff incidents differently
> Low on representativeness, as it’s only a small group of people.
90
What is Participant Observation?
What type of data does it obtain?
> Observing the group or event, and taking part with them.
> Yields Qualitative Data
91
Which group prefers PO and who is it usually used by?
Interpretivists
92
Why do Interpretivists prefer PO?
Say better understanding can be gained if ppl put themselves in same position as ppl they’re studying.
93
Define Covert PO
Done undercover, hide their true intentions, group unaware of researcher status.
94
Define Overt PO
Actively involved with group, but those being observed are aware of their status as a researcher.
95
Ethically which is more acceptable or Covert or Overt Observation?
> From an ethical perspective, overt role is more acceptable, allows ppl to be aware they’re being studied and can give informed consent.
96
What are examples of PO Studies?
> Laud - (Tearoom Trade) - Covert
> Whyte - (Italian Americans) - (Overt)
> Hargreaves (Same as Unstructured) - (Overt)
97
Explain Laud's Example of Covert PO Studies?
Study of gay what?
What did Humphrey's state?
They were self-perceived as what?
Humphreys stated 50%+ of what?
Showing difference between what?
> Study of gay sexual encounters in public toilets
> Humphreys stated men participating in this had different reasons for taking part .
> They were self-perceived as “straight,” “bi,” or “gay. ”
> Humphreys stated 50%+ of men were straight with unaware wives at home.
> Showing difference between private-self and social-self for men engaging in this.
98
Why is Laud criticised for his study?
he observed acts of homosexuality by impersonating a voyeur, not getting his subjects consent.
99
Explain Interpretivist views on PO in relation to advantages of PO?
> Validity as good insight and verstehen.
100
GIve the 2 Practical Advantages of PO?
> Natural setting, so provides a truer picture
> Can build trust w/ deviant groups e.g. gangs
101
GIve the Ethical Advantages of PO?
> If overt no deception & informed consent
102
GIve the Theoretical Advantages of PO?
> Valid
103
Explain Positivists views on PO in relation to disadvantages of PO?
Positivists say researcher may get too involved that their bias affects results
104
GIve the 4 Practical Disadvantages of PO?
> Time-Consuming
> Can be problems getting in and out’ of group
> Age, gender and ethnicity can restrict kinds of groups that can be studied.
> Hawthorne Effect
105
GIve the 2 Ethical Disadvantages of PO?
> Illegal things may have to be done
> If Covert, there’s deception and no informed consent
106
GIve the 2 Theoretical Disadvantages of PO?
> Small samples, not representative
> Lacks reliability, based on researchers own interpretation
107
Explain Whyte Example of Overt PO Studies?
Study of which group?
Lives of gang men revolved around what?
What were college boys interested in?
> Study of Italian American Gangs & College Boys in USA.
> Lives of gang men revolved around particular street corners and nearby shops.
> College boys were more interested in good education and moving up the social ladder.
108
# Define Structured Observations (SO)
Where researcher does what?
These categories are then what?
Why do Positivists prefer this?
> SO is where researcher in advance categorises the behaviour they observe.
> These categories are coded, then counted so can be turned into statistics.
> Positivists prefer this as it produces empirical data, can be judged.
109
What are examples of SO Studies?
> FIAC (Classroom Interactions)
110
What are the advantages of SO?
How is it better than an Unstructured Observation?
What is an example study?
What is the benefit of it producing reliable data?
What is the benefit of it producing Quantitative Data?
> Quicker, cheaper and requires less training than unstructured observation
e.g. FIAC was used to count pupil-pupil and pupil-teacher interactions e.g. NO of times teacher praises a pupil.
> Produces reliable data, that be easily replicated by other researchers using same fixed categories as other researcher.
> Produce quantitative data, makes it easier to analyse and compare.
111
Explain Interpretivists views on SO, in relation to Disadvantages of SO?
Interpretivists criticise SO like FIAC for lack of validity. Just counting behaviour ignores classroom meanings.
112
Explain the 2 Disadvantages of SO?
> Only useful in small scale interactions, it’s an intensive method to carry out.
> Generally smaller sample sizes so lacks generalizability and representativeness.
113
Define Unstructured Observations
Observation, where there’s no checklist so every behaviour seen, is written down in as much detail as possible.
114
Define what a Questionaire is?
Respondents give answers to pre-set questions e.g. multiple choice, scaled etc, usually self completed
115
What are the 4 types of Questionaire
> Closed Questionnaires
> Open-Ended Questionnaires
> Multiple Choice and Scaled
> Postal, Mail and Online Self-Completion Questionnaires.
116
What are Closed Questionnaires?
With an example?
- Respondents must choose from a range of fixed possible answers
- e.g. Did you vote at the last general election yes/no
117
What are Open-Ended Questionnaires?
With an example?
- Respondent can answer in detail, in their own words, without answers being pre-selected.
- e.g. Why did you vote?
118
What are Multiple Choice and Scaled Questionnaires?
With an example?
- Where respondent is given multiple fixed answers to choose from.
- e.g. How did you rate David Cameron as PM? Good/Satisfactory/Bad
119
What are examples of Questionnaire Studies?
> Kirkland and Rowland (Gender Differences in Parental Attitudes)
> Callender and Jackson (Poor v Rich Students - Uni)
120
Explain Kirkland and Rowland Example of Questionnaires?
Who did they survey?
What did they find differences between?
Higher % of parents wanted what?
> Surveyed several Secondary schools, with adults and children.
> Found difference in parental attitudes for boys and girls.
> Higher % of parents wanted girls to go to Uni than boys.
121
Explain Callender and Jackson Example of Questionnaires?
> Questionnaire given to sample of students.
> WC more debt averse
> Saw more cons than pros for going Uni
> WC 5x less likely to apply for uni than MC
122
Explain Positivists views on Questionnaires, in relation to General Advantages of Questionnaires?
Achieve main goals of reliability, generalisability and representativeness.
123
GIve the 4 Practical Advantages of Questionnaires?
> Cheap, Easy, Quick covers large samples
> Can establish cause and effect relationships & compare diff groups
> More likely to give answers to sensitive topics
> No Hawthorne effect
124
GIve the 3 Ethical Advantages of Questionnaires?
> No issues of deception and informed consent
> Respondent can refuse to answer questions
> Can ensure anonymity
125
GIve the 2 Theoretical Advantages of Questionnaires?
> Representativeness
> High reliability
126
Explain Interpretivists views on Questionnaires, in relation to General Disadvantages of Questionnaires?
> Fail to build relationships and verstehen, not valid.
> Imposition Problem
127
Give 4 Practical Disadvantages of Questionnaires? (1)
> Incentives, to complete them e.g giftcards etc, adds to cost.
> High NO of ppl who decline to answer.
> May lie or rush them
> If complex language is used, may only be completed by MC, can’t clarify meanings, so effects generalisations
128
Give an Ethical Disadvantages of Questionnaires?
Tend to categorise ppl into simplistic groups (e.g. ethnic groups)
129
Give Theoretical Disadvantages of Questionnaires?
> Not valid
130
Define Population in relation to Sampling?
Entire group of ppl from which the sampling frame and the sample are later chosen.
131
Define what is meant by Sampling Frame
List of everyone in the target population from which a sample is drawn. E.g. electoral roll or a telephone directory.
132
Outline 6 Sampling Methods
```
> Random Sampling
> Systematic Sampling
> Stratified Random Sampling
> Quota Sampling
> Snowball Sampling
> Opportunity Sampling
```
133
# Define Random Sampling
With an example?
Every individual in population has an equal chance of being picked out for investigation
e.g. Computer Generated or out of a hat.
134
# Define Systematic Sampling
With an example?
Names are selected from sampling frame at regular intervals until desired size is reached
e.g. Young and Wilmott.
135
# Define Stratified Random Sampling
With an example?
Choosing particular categories of people and taking random samples from each category
e.g. men and women
136
# Define Quota Sampling
With an example?
Survey population is divided and interviewers find a quota of people who fit the criteria
e.g. if they need 25 men
137
Define Snowball Sampling
- Researcher interviews an individual and then asks to them if they know anyone else who’ll want to get interviewed
- Sample size eventually gets larger.
138
# Define Opportunity Sampling
With an example?
Choosing individuals who are easiest to access
e.g. passers-by in street or class of pupils, however this won’t be representative.
139
3 Reasons why it may not be possible to create a representative sample
Potential respondents may refuse to what?
What is the Intepretivst view?
> Potential respondents may refuse to participate
- e.g some criminals may refuse, due to fear their responses may be passed to police.
> Interpetvists believe it’s more important to get valid data and a understanding of social actors meanings
- Less concerned about generalisation, so less need for rep sample.
> May be impossible to find or create sampling frame, for that particular research population
- e.g. not all criminals are convicted, so not complete list available from to select a sample
140
# Define Ethnography
What type of sociologists uses this method?
Involves what?
Includes what?
What are examples?
‘Ethnographic’ study of a culture, a group or human behaviour or writing about a way of life.
Interpretivist method that tries to get inside heads of people involved’.
> Most ethnographic research involves PO.
> Incl. case studies, life histories and community studies. (e.g. Azande, Street Corner Society, Learning to Labour)
141
What are examples of Ethnography Studies
> Barker - (The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing?)
142
Explain Barkers Study in relation to Ethnography
Barker spent how long studying who?
What did she do?
What did she attend?
> Barker spent 7yrs studying Unification Church members.
> She interviewed in-depth and gave probing questionnaires to them.
> She attended many workshops and communal facilities.
143
4 Methods of Ethnographic Research
> Case Studies
> Life Histories
> Community Studies
> Longitudinal Studies
144
# Define Case Studies, in relation to Ethnographic Research
In depth study of what?
Could be who?
Often PO with what?
What are example studies?
- In-depth study of whatever sociologist wants to investigate.
- Could be an individual, a group, an event etc.
- Often PO with some form of interviews.
- e.g. Willis, Evans and Pritchard.
145
# Define Life Histories, in relation to Ethnographic Research
Specific type of what?
Mostly using what?
What type of data, does it yield?
- Specific type of case study looking at overall life of one individual or small group
- Mostly using in-depth unstructured interviews supported by personal documents e.g. diaries and letters.
- Qualitative Data
146
2 Advantages of Case Studies and Life Histories
> Can be useful to test wider theories e.g. WC boys’ attitudes towards education.
> Give more valid in-depth understanding (verstehen) from POV of individual or group, than Positivists Methods e.g. Questionnaires, Surveys.
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3 Disadvantages of Case Studies and Life Histories
> Unrepresentative so findings can’t be generalised.
> Difficult to replicate.
> Time Consuming and Expensive
148
Define Community Studies, in relation to Ethnographic Research
Studies of whole communities e.g. small village or town.
149
Define Longtiudnal Studies, in relation to Ethnographic Research
Studies conducted over a long period of time, interviewing participants at regular intervals
e.g. through their childhood, in order to see development.
150
Explain 2 Advantages of Longitudinal Studies
> Can see and record social change over significant time periods, rather than just taking ‘snapshot’ of 1 moment.
> Gets to know respondents well - strong rapport and valid data as people more likely to trust someone they know.
151
Explain Disadvantages of Longtidunal Studies
> Costly and Time-Consuming so funding agencies may be unwilling to commit.
> Sample Attrition - people drop out over time
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# Define Ethnomethodology
Interested in what?
Don't try to what?
Referred to as what?
> Interested in individual behaviour.
> Don’t try to make sense of individuals, examine how individuals make sense of a situation.
> Referred to as documentary method.
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Explain the Role of the BSA
Provides guidelines on what?
As there only guidelines what can't happen?
What are examples of guidelines?
> Provides guidelines on how to do sociological research.
> Only guidelines so can’t be enforced by law.
> e.g. informed consent, deception, harm.
154
Define Official Statstics
Quantitative data collected by gov
155
What are areas that Official Statistics collects data on?
Include data relating to births, deaths, and marriages/civil partnerships, unemployment etc.
156
What are examples of Questionaires that become statistics
> British Crime Survey (BCS)
> Census
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What are examples of Quantitative statistics?
> Census of Population: Carried out every 10 years. Every household has to complete census form.
> Examination Statistics. (eg. GCSEs)
> BCS
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Define Primary Data
Collected by researcher himself can be quantitative or qualitative.
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Define Secondary Data
Available to sociologist as it already exists and they don’t collect themselves.
160
What are Marxist views on Official Police stats?
> Argue official police stats underestimate NO people taking part in protest vs Gov policies.
> Gives public impression there’s less opposition to capitalism
161
Explain Positivist views on Statistics, in relation to advantages of Statistics
True, objective and unbiased.
162
Give the 5 Practical Advantages of OS?
> Easily accessible & Cheap
> No Hawthorne Effect
> Covers large groups of ppl
> Cause & Effect relationships and comparison between groups
> Unbiased, as sociologists personal feelings don’t have effect
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Give the Ethical Advantage of OS?
No issues w/ deception or informed consent etc
164
Give the 2 Theoretical Advantages of OS?
> Representative
| > Reliable
165
Explain Interpretivists views on Statistics, in relation to disadvantages of Statistics
> Stats not facts, but result of social interactions
> Socially constructed, represents label ppl give to behaviour of others
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Explain Marxist views on Statistics, in relation to disadvantages of Statistics
- Serves interests of capitalism
| - e.g. unemployment’s definition changed so conceals true story of unemployment and effect on WC
167
Give the Practical Disadvantages of OS?
> May be manipulated to reflect well on Gov e.g. unemployment figures)
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Give the 2 Ethical Disadvantages of OS?
> Categorizes ppl into simplistic groups.
> Can be used for purposes harming social groups e.g. immigration, race.
169
Give the Theoretical Disadvantages of OS?
> Not Valid
170
Define Documents
- Any written text
| - e.g. letters and emails
171
Outline the 3 Types of Document
> Personal Documents
> Public Documents
> Historical Docs
172
# Define Public Docs
What is an example in Education?
Made for public use by organisations e.g. gov, schools e.g. Ofsted Reports, Hansard
173
Define Historical Docs
- Docs created in the past.
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What are examples of Historical Docs, within the Family chapter
- e.g. Aries Study of Childhood: Using child-rearing manuals and paintings of children.
- e.g. Laslett used church records to study family structure in Pre-Industrial England.
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Briefly outline the four criteria for assessing docs?
> Authenticity
> Credibility
> Representativeness
> Meaning
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Explain the idea of Authenticity in relation to the 4 criteria for assessing documents?
- Is document what it claims to be
- are there missing pages
- if it’s a copy is it free from errors
- is there potential it may have been forged.
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Explain the idea of Credibility in relation to the 4 criteria for assessing documents?
Is doc believable and accurate, was the author sincere and honest.
178
Explain the idea of Representativeness in relation to the 4 criteria for assessing documents?
Is doc typical of those appearing at the time?
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Explain the idea of Meaning in relation to the 4 criteria for assessing documents?
Do docs have same meaning now as they did when they were 1st produced
Mat be in a foreign language or meanings of words may change over time.
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Explain the findings of the Swann Report 1985, in relation to examples of Public Documents in Education?
> Social Class was a factor in low levels of achievement from Afro-Caribbean kids.
> Paki’s Bangladeshi and Afro-Caribbean groups more likely to have parents working in low level jobs.
> May result in unemployment, poverty and material deprivation.
> Chinese/Indian more likely to come from higher class positions.
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Explain Interpretivist views on Personal Docs, in relation to advantages of Personal Docs?
- Valid data, insights into ppl who produces them.
182
Explain the 4 Practical Advantages of Documents?
> Good access to public docs.
> Cheap as someone else already gathered info.
> No Hawthorne effect etc
> Sometime docs may be only source of info, for studying the past.
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Explain the Ethical Advantage of Documents?
> No issues of psychological harm, deception etc.
184
Explain Positivists views on Docs, in relation to disadvantages of Docs?
Personal docs, unrepresentative
185
Explain the 4 Practical Disadvantages of Documents?
> Hard to access etc.
> Historical Docs may be difficult to understand .
> May be restricted by cost.
> Time-Consuming, to dissect info.
186
Explain the 2 Ethical Disadvantages of Documents?
> Intrusive e.g. reading other people’s diaries.
> Lack of consent using personal docs w/ permission.
187
Explain the 2 Theoretical Disadvantages of Documents?
> May be incomplete, so could lack validity.
> Unrepresentative, ungeneralisable.
188
Example Study of Polish Peasants in Europe and America by Thomas and Znaniecki, showing the disadvantages of using documents
What did they do in their study?
What was the disadvantage?
> Purchased 764 letters and several autobiographies following advert requesting them
> Practical disadvantage as they could’ve conducted interviews or questionnaires more cheaply to gain similar findings.
189
Define Content Analysis
Method of dealing systematically w/ contents in documents.
190
What is Content Analysis known for it's use in?
Known for use in analysing documents produced by mass media e.g. TV News or Ads.
191
In Content Analysis what type of documents are used usually?
> Docs are qualitative
> content analysis allows sociologist to get quantitative data, from them.
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Explain the example of Content Analysis of Glasgow University Media Group: Bad News (1976)
> Examined TV news coverage of strikes in 1970s.
> British TV claimed to be impartial.
> However managers were interviewed in quiet rooms and were commented on as finding ‘agreement’
> Striking workers interviewed in noisy outside locations and were said to be ‘making demands’
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Explain the Advantages of Content Analysis
> Cheap
> Easy to find content in newspapers, TV broadcasts etc.
> Reveal patterns or trends which may not’ve been obvious before research
194
Explain the Positivist view of Content Analysis, in relation to Advantages of Content Analysis
Positivists see it as useful, objective and quantitative, scientific data
195
Explain the Interpretivists view of Content Analysis, in relation to Disadvantages of Content Analysis
Interpretivists say simply counting NO of times something appears in a doc, tell us nothing about it’s meaning.
196
Define Group Interviews (GI)
Where several ppl interviewed at same time to discuss certain topic, usually unstructured. Favoured by Interactionists.
197
What is an Educational Example of GI?
Willis Study of the Lads’s ASS
198
Briefly outline Advantages of Group Interviews
```
> Onus not only researcher
> Time
> Permission
> Safe Environment
> Pilot Study
> Peer Support
```
199
Explain how Onus not just on researcher is an advantage of GI?
Onus’s not entirely on researcher to raise questions, group interacts with each other and throwing around ideas stimulates each others ideas, producing valid data.
200
Explain how Time is an advantage of GI?
Interviews several ppl at once, so saves time.
201
Explain how Permission is an advantage of GI?
- Interviewing several ppl at once.
| - So skls more likely to allow them.
202
Explain how Safe Environment is an advantage of GI?
- More comfortable, surrounded by peers, so give more honest answers & open up.
203
Explain how Pilot Study is an advantage of GI?
Good way to get initial ideas in pilot study followed up w/ later research
204
Explain how Peer Support is an advantage of GI?
Reduces power imbalance
205
Briefly outline Disadvantages of Group Interviews
```
> Peer Pressure (Willis Study)
> Reliability
> Strong individuals
> Hawthorne Effect
> No Anonymity
```
206
Explain how Peer Pressure (Willis Study) is an disadvantage of GI?
> Conform to majority view.
> Play devils advocate
> Difficult to know if views are shared or ppl boys egged on to say similar things
207
Explain how Reliability is a disadvantage of GI?
Low reliability, hard to repeat, due to free flowing nature
208
Explain how Strong Individuals is a disadvantage of GI?
Strong individuals may dominate convo, lowering representativeness.
209
Explain how No Anonymity is a disadvantage of GI?
As other ppl present can’t guarantee confidentiality.
