Lecture 2

Question 1

What are the assumptions of science?

Answer 1

True, physical universe exists.
Universe is essentially orderly.
The principles that define the functioning of the universe can be discovered.
All ideas are tentative, potentially changed by new information.

Question 2

What do the basic assumptions of science do?

Answer 2

Form the basis of all scientific thinking.

Question 3

What are observation and inference based on?

Answer 3

Based on empirical observation and rational abstraction we create understanding.

Question 4

What are facts?

Answer 4

Events that can be observed

Question 5

What are most facts of psychology?

Answer 5

Behaviours.

Question 6

What are constructs inferred from?

Answer 6

Observations

Question 7

What is a reitification of a construct?

Answer 7

Incorrectly believing it is fact.

Question 8

What is inductive thinking?

Answer 8

From the specific instance to the general theory.

Question 9

What is a deductive reasoning?

Answer 9

from the general theory to predict specific instances

Question 10

How does science develop theory?

Answer 10

It develops theories through inductive logic.

Question 11

How does science test theories?

Answer 11

Tests theories by generating predictions through deductive logic and empirically verifying those predictions, observation regarding those predictions are then used to….
And so on… it’s a process of enquiry.

Question 12

What’s a theory?

Answer 12

A simplified framework for explaining complex phenomena.

Question 13

A scientfic theory must be both?

Answer 13

Testable and falsiable

Question 14

What is the role of theories?

Answer 14

Theories organize data and help predict new data; they provide us with direction.

Question 15

What are the three ways to evaluate theories?

Answer 15

Validity, parisomony and usefulness

Question 16

What is validity?

Answer 16

Accuracy of the theory in predicting outcomes.

Question 17

What is parsimony?

Answer 17

Simple theories are preferred.

Question 18

What is usefulness?

Answer 18

The value of the theory for practical problem solving.

Question 19

What are the four types of theories?

Answer 19

Inductive theories, deductive theories
E.g., Skinner’s conditioning theories.

Deductive theories:

Functional theories:

Models: ‘Mini-theories’. An analogical representation of reality – it represents reality, does not replicate it.

Question 20

What are inductive theories built on?

Answer 20

built on strong data base and tend to stay close to the data.

Question 21

What are deductive theories built on?

Answer 21

logically derived rather than derived from the data.

Question 22

What are examples of inductive theories?

Answer 22

Skinner’s conditioning theories

Question 23

What is an example of a deductive theory?

Answer 23

Meehl’s (1962, 1990) theory of schizophrenia – no data at that time to support his contention.

Question 24

What are functional theories?

Answer 24

about equal emphasis on inductive and deductive processes.

Question 25

What are model theories?

Answer 25

‘Mini-theories’. An analogical representation of reality – it represents reality, does not replicate it.

Question 26

What is a model?

Answer 26

Model: A simplified representation of the real thing.

Question 27

What is a model used to conceptualise?

Answer 27

It is used to conceptualize phenomena that are too complex to understand in their entirety.

Question 28

What increases the chance a model will be useful?

Answer 28

The closer a model is to reality, the more likely that it will be useful.

Question 29

What is the two dimensional model of research involve?

Answer 29

Phases of research and levels of constraint.

Question 30

What are the phases of research?

Answer 30

The successive, overlapping steps of a research project.

Question 31

What is the level of constraint?

Answer 31

The degree of specificity, control, and precision.

Question 32

What are the phases of research?

Answer 32

``` Idea-generating phase. Problem-definition phase. Procedures-design phase. Observation phase. Data-analysis phase. Interpretation phase. Communication phase. ```

Question 33

What occurs in the problem-definition phase of research?

Answer 33

Ideas are formalized into testable research questions.

Question 34

What is procedures-design phase?

Answer 34

# Translate your ideas into testable hypotheses. The variables must be defined and procedures selected. Each step should be planned. Ethical issues must be considered.

Question 35

What is the data-analysis phase?

Answer 35

Evaluating the data, usually using statistical procedures. Statistical procedures are selected in the procedures-design phase. Many types of statistics are available: Depends on the question asked. Depends on the nature of the data.

Question 36

What does naturalistic observation involve?

Answer 36

Involves observing the natural flow of behavior in a natural setting:

Question 37

With naturalistic observation is than an effort to control behaviour?

Answer 37

No.

Question 38

What are hypothesises with naturalistic observation?

Answer 38

Often no strong hypotheses going into the study.

Question 39

For naturalistic observation, what does a flexible strategy involve?

Answer 39

Allows the researcher to shift attention to behaviors that seem interesting.

Question 40

What does case study research have?

Answer 40

Some intervention by the researcher to structure the setting and observations: Asking questions. Setting up situations or tasks.

Question 41

With case research who is being studied?

Answer 41

Typically studying a single individual

Question 42

What is correlational research?

Answer 42

Measuring the direction and strength of a relationship between variables: Must be at least two variables. Variables must be measured consistently (that is, measurement is constrained).

Question 43

What is correlational research used for?

Answer 43

Established relationships can be used to predict future events – but with caution. Difficult to ascertain direction of causality.

Question 44

What is differential research?

Answer 44

Concerned with evaluating differences between existing groups:

Question 45

With differential research groups defined by?

Answer 45

Groups defined by preexisting variables. | Group composition is outside of researcher’s control.

Question 46

With differential research, what does interpreting group differences do?

Answer 46

Interpreting group differences takes skill, knowledge, and caution.

Question 47

What is experiental research?

Answer 47

Comparing two or more conditions: Participants are assigned randomly to the conditions. Therefore, group differences are due to the impact of the conditions. The highest level of constraint.

Question 48

What is the highest level of constraint in research?

Answer 48

Experimental research.