Lecture 2 Flashcards
What are the assumptions of science?
True, physical universe exists.
Universe is essentially orderly.
The principles that define the functioning of the universe can be discovered.
All ideas are tentative, potentially changed by new information.
What do the basic assumptions of science do?
Form the basis of all scientific thinking.
What are observation and inference based on?
Based on empirical observation and rational abstraction we create understanding.
What are facts?
Events that can be observed
What are most facts of psychology?
Behaviours.
What are constructs inferred from?
Observations
What is a reitification of a construct?
Incorrectly believing it is fact.
What is inductive thinking?
From the specific instance to the general theory.
What is a deductive reasoning?
from the general theory to predict specific instances
How does science develop theory?
It develops theories through inductive logic.
How does science test theories?
Tests theories by generating predictions through deductive logic and empirically verifying those predictions, observation regarding those predictions are then used to….
And so on… it’s a process of enquiry.
What’s a theory?
A simplified framework for explaining complex phenomena.
A scientfic theory must be both?
Testable and falsiable
What is the role of theories?
Theories organize data and help predict new data; they provide us with direction.
What are the three ways to evaluate theories?
Validity, parisomony and usefulness
What is validity?
Accuracy of the theory in predicting outcomes.
What is parsimony?
Simple theories are preferred.
What is usefulness?
The value of the theory for practical problem solving.
What are the four types of theories?
Inductive theories, deductive theories
E.g., Skinner’s conditioning theories.
Deductive theories:
Functional theories:
Models: ‘Mini-theories’. An analogical representation of reality – it represents reality, does not replicate it.
What are inductive theories built on?
built on strong data base and tend to stay close to the data.
What are deductive theories built on?
logically derived rather than derived from the data.
What are examples of inductive theories?
Skinner’s conditioning theories
What is an example of a deductive theory?
Meehl’s (1962, 1990) theory of schizophrenia – no data at that time to support his contention.
What are functional theories?
about equal emphasis on inductive and deductive processes.
What are model theories?
‘Mini-theories’. An analogical representation of reality – it represents reality, does not replicate it.
What is a model?
Model: A simplified representation of the real thing.
What is a model used to conceptualise?
It is used to conceptualize phenomena that are too complex to understand in their entirety.
What increases the chance a model will be useful?
The closer a model is to reality, the more likely that it will be useful.
What is the two dimensional model of research involve?
Phases of research and levels of constraint.
What are the phases of research?
The successive, overlapping steps of a research project.
What is the level of constraint?
The degree of specificity, control, and precision.
What are the phases of research?
Idea-generating phase. Problem-definition phase. Procedures-design phase. Observation phase. Data-analysis phase. Interpretation phase. Communication phase.
What occurs in the problem-definition phase of research?
Ideas are formalized into testable research questions.
What is procedures-design phase?
Translate your ideas into testable hypotheses.
The variables must be defined and procedures selected.
Each step should be planned.
Ethical issues must be considered.
What is the data-analysis phase?
Evaluating the data, usually using statistical procedures.
Statistical procedures are selected in the procedures-design phase.
Many types of statistics are available:
Depends on the question asked.
Depends on the nature of the data.
What does naturalistic observation involve?
Involves observing the natural flow of behavior in a natural setting:
With naturalistic observation is than an effort to control behaviour?
No.
What are hypothesises with naturalistic observation?
Often no strong hypotheses going into the study.
For naturalistic observation, what does a flexible strategy involve?
Allows the researcher to shift attention to behaviors that seem interesting.
What does case study research have?
Some intervention by the researcher to structure the setting and observations:
Asking questions.
Setting up situations or tasks.
With case research who is being studied?
Typically studying a single individual
What is correlational research?
Measuring the direction and strength of a relationship between variables:
Must be at least two variables.
Variables must be measured consistently (that is, measurement is constrained).
What is correlational research used for?
Established relationships can be used to predict future events – but with caution.
Difficult to ascertain direction of causality.
What is differential research?
Concerned with evaluating differences between existing groups:
With differential research groups defined by?
Groups defined by preexisting variables.
Group composition is outside of researcher’s control.
With differential research, what does interpreting group differences do?
Interpreting group differences takes skill, knowledge, and caution.
What is experiental research?
Comparing two or more conditions:
Participants are assigned randomly to the conditions.
Therefore, group differences are due to the impact of the conditions.
The highest level of constraint.
What is the highest level of constraint in research?
Experimental research.
