Exam #1 chapter 1 part 1 Flashcards
the scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structures
anatomy
what is an example of anatomy?
the shape and size of bones
what is an example of anatomy of bones?
the hard mineralized substance enables the bones to provide strength and support.
studies the structural changes that occur between conception and adulthood
developmental anatomy
a subspecialty of developmental anatomy, considers the changes from conception to the end of the 8th week of development
embryology
examines the structural features of cells
cytology
examines the tissues, whch are composed of cells and the materials surrouonding them
histology
the study of structures that can be examined without the aid of a microscope and can be approached systemically or regionally
gross anatomy
how is the body studied in systemic anatomy?
system by systsem
how is the body studies in regional anatomy?
area by area
how are systems sutdied in regional anatomy?
simoultanously
involves looking at the exterior of the body to visualize structures deeper inside the body
surface anatomy
whata is an example of surface anatomy?
the sternum and parts of the ribs can be seen and palpated on the front of the chest.
the scientific investigation of the processes or functions of living things
physiology
what are the major goals when studying physiology?
to understand and preict the body’s responses to stimuli and to understand how the body maintains conditions withn a narrow range of values in constantly changing environment
examines the processes occurring in cells
cell physiology
considers the functions of organ systems
systemic physiology
what are the 6 levels of organization that the body can be studied at?
1) chemical
2) cell
3) tissue
4) organ
5) organ system
6) whole organism
basic structural and functional units of plants and animals
cells
what do molecules form to combine?
organelles
small structures inside cells
organelles
what is an example of an organelle?
the nucleus and mitochondria
an organelle that contains the cell’s hereditary information
nucleus
an organelle that manufacture ATP
mitochandria
a molecule which cells use for energy
adenosine triphoshpate (ATP)
composed of a group of similar cells and the materials surrounding them
tissue
composed of two or more tissue types that perform one or more common functions
organ
whatare some examples of organs?
the urinary bladder, heart, stomach and lung
what is an example of an organ system?
the urinary system which consists of kidneys, ureter, urinary bladder and urethra.
any living thing considered as a whole whether composed of one cell such as bacterium or trillions such as a human
organism
what are the four types of tissues that the body is made up of?
1) epithelial
2) connective
3) muscle
4) nervous
what is the most common feature of all organisms?
life
the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment
homeostasis
what are some homeostatic mechanisms?
sweating or shivering
what do homeostatic mechanisms maintain?
body temperature near an ideal normal value or set point.
what are most systems of the body regulated by that maintains homeostasis
negative-feedback
what does negative mean in negative-feedback?
when any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted
what does the response to the original stimulus result in during negative-feedback?
deviation from the set point, becoming smaller.
what is an example of important negative feedback mechanisms in the body?
those maintaining normal body temperature
what are the three components that most negative-feedback mechanisms have?
1) receptor
2) control center
3) effector
monitors the value of a variable such as body temperature
receptor
such as part of the brain, which establishes the set point around which the variable is maintained through communication with the receptors and effetors
control center
can adjust the value of the variable usually back toward the set point such as sweat glands
effector
what does normal body temperature depend on?
the coordination of multiple structures
what are the multiple structures regulated by to maintain a normal body temp?
the control center or hypothalamus in the brain
what happens when body temp rises?
sweat glands (the effectors) produce sweat and body cools
what happens when body temp falls?
sweat glands do no produce sweatn
what does the stepwise process that regulates body temp involve?
the interaction of receptors, the control center and effectors.
often there is more than one effector what must intergrate them?
the control center
in the case of elevated body temp what does the thermoreceptors in the skin and hypothalamus do?
detect the increase in temp and send the information to the hypolthalamus control center
when the hypothalamus receives the information about the increased temp what happens next?
the hypothalamus stimulates blood vessels in the skin to relax and sweat glands to produce sweat
after the blood vessels in the skin relax and sweat glands produce sweat in the case of an evlevated body temp, what happens?
more blood is sent to the body’s surface for the radiation of heat away from the body
in the case of the response to an elevated body temp what are the skin and blood vessels considered in this scenario?
the effectors
once body temp returns to normal what does the control center signal?
the sweat glands to reduce sweat production and the blood vessels to constrict to their normal diameter
if body temp drops what happens/
the control center does not stimulate sweat glands and instead the skin blood vessels constrict more than normal and blood is directed to deeper regions of the body, conserving heat in the interior of the body
what else does the hypothalamus do when body temp drops?
stimulates shivering, quick cycles of skeletal muscle contractions which generate a great amount of heat
what stops once the body temp returns to normal
the effectors
in both cases of temperature rising and falling what happens with the effectors?
they do not produce their responses indefinitely and are controlled by negataive feedback
even though homeostasis maintains normal range what can be beneficial?
deviation from usual range of values
what is an example of it being beneficial to deviate from homeostasis?
during exercise, the normal range for blood pressure differs from the range under resting conditions and the blood pressure is significantly elevated.
what do muscle cells require?
increased oxygen and nutrients and the removal of waste products to support their heightned level of activity during exercise
what does increased blood pressure increase during exercise ?
the delivery of blood to muscles, increasing the delivery of oxygen and nutrientsand the removal of waste products, ultimately maintaining muscle cell homeostasis
mechanisms occur when a response to the original stimulus results in the deviation from the set point becoming even greater
positive feedback
two basic principles to remembers about negative and positive feedback
1) many disease states result from the failure of negative-feedback mechanisms to maintain homeostasis
2) some positive-feeback mechanisms can determined detrimental instead of helpful
what does a plane do?
divides or sections the body to make it possible to “look inside” and observe the structures
runs vertically through the body, separating it into right and left portions
sagittal plane
what does the term sagital really mean?
“flight of an arrow” referring to the way the bodywould be split by an arrow passing anteriorly and posteriorlly
a saggital plane that passes through the midline of the body, dividing it into equal right and left halves
median plane
runs parallel to the ground, dividing the body into superior and inferior portions
transverse (horizontal) plane
runs vertically to divide the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts
frontal (coronal) plane
what are x-rays often used for?
to visualize a broken bone or at the dentist
what is the major limitation of radiographs (x-rays)?
they give only flat, 2-D images of the body
technique that uses high-frequency sound waves, which are emitted from a transmitter-receiver placed on the skin over the area to be scanned. the sound waves strike internal organs and bounce back to a receiver on the skin.
ultrasound
once a computer analyzes the pattern of reflected soundwaves what happens?
the information is transferred to a monitor to be visualized as a sonogram.
what is one of the more recent advances in ultrasound technology?
the ability of more advanced computers to analyze changes in position through “real time” movements.
what is ultrasound commonly used to evaluate?
the condition of the fetus during pregnancy
computer analyzed x-ray images. a low-intensity x-ray tube is rotated through a 360-degree arc around the patient and the images are fed into a computer. the computer then consstructs the image of a “slice” through the body at the point where the x-ray beam was focused and rotated.
computed tomographic (CT) scans
what are some computers able to do with CT scans?
to take several scans short distances apart and stack the slices to produce a 3-D image of a body part
one step beyond CT scanning. A 3-D radiographic image of an organ such as the brain is made and stored in a computer. then a radiopaque dye is injected into the blood and a second radiographic image is made. The first image is subtracted from the second one, greatly enhancing the differences revealed by the injected dye.
Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)
directs radio waves at a person lying iniside a large electromagnetic field. the magnetic field causes the protons of various atoms to align. when the radio wavs are turned off, the hydrogen atoms realign in accordance with the magnetic field. the time it takes to realign is different for different tissues. these differences can be analyzed by a computer to produce very clear sections through the body.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
since we have large amounts of water in our body what does that help with during an MRI?
alignment of hydrogen atom protons
what is DSA most commonly used for?
angioplasty
what does MRIs detect that some CT scans can’t?
it’s very senstive in detecting some forms of cancer
when cells are active, they are using energy. the energy they need is supplied by the breakdown of glucose. if radioactivity treated glucose is given to the patient, the active cells take up the glucose. As the radioactivity in the glucose decays, positively charged subatomic particles called positrons are emitted. when the positrons collide with electrons, the two particles annihilate each other and gamma rays are given off. the gamma rays can be detected, pinpointing cells that are metobolicaly active.
Positron emission tomographic (PET) scan
what can PET scans see?
metabolic states of various tissues
what is PET scans particularly useful in analyzing?
the brain
the outer part of the balloon wall
parietal serous membrane
the inner balloon wall in contact with your fist covering the organ
visceral serous membrane
three serous membranes of the thoracic cavity
1) pericardial cavity around the heart
2) pleural cavity around the two lungs
serous membrane of the abdominopelvic cavity
the peritoneal
specialized membranes in the abdominopelvic cavity that anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach organs
mesentaries
specialied membranes in the abdominopelvic cavity that are behind the peritoneum, this includes the kidneys, adrenal glands, the pancreas, parts of the intestines and urinary bladder
retroperitoneal
