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Histology > Endocrine Glands Part 2 > Flashcards

Endocrine Glands Part 2 Flashcards

1
Q

describe the parathyroid glands

A

small endocrine glands associated with thyroid

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2
Q

where are the parathyroid glands located

A

posterior surface of thyroid gland, one superior and one inferior

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3
Q

what are the parathyroid glands embryologically derived from

A

third and fourth branchial (pharyngeal) pouches

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4
Q

what do parathyroid glands secrete and what does it do

A

parathyroid hormone- regulates serum calcium and phosphate

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5
Q

what are the reciprocal effects of calcitonin and PTH

A

PTH slowly increases serum calcium, calcitonin rapidly decreases serum calcium

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6
Q

what are the 3 ways in which PTH increases serum calcium

A

-increases osteoclast activity (inhibits osteoblasts)
- increases renal tubular absorption of Ca in kidneys (and inhibits resorption of phosphate)
- increases calcium absorption from gut via Vit D

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7
Q

what is PTH stimulated by

A

decrease in blood calcium

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8
Q

what happens if parathyroid is damaged in surgery

A

hypoparathyroidism

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9
Q

what is hyperparathyroidism

A

excesss PTH production

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10
Q

what it the result of hyperparathyroidism

A

bony erosion and lysis

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11
Q

what are the 2 types of secretory cells in the parathyroid gland

A

chief cells and oxyphil cells

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12
Q

what cell is more abundant in the parathyroid gland

A

chief cells

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13
Q

what do chief cells secrete

A

PTH

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14
Q

what do oxyphils contain

A

large numbers of mitochondria

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15
Q

what is the function of oxyphils

A

unknown function

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16
Q

what happens to the parathyroid gland in older individuals

A

fatty infiltration

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17
Q

where are the adrenal glands located

A

superior to the kidneys

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18
Q

what are the adrenal glands covered by

A

thin CT capsule

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19
Q

what is the embryological origin of the adrenal cortex

A

mesoderm

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20
Q

what is the adrenal cortex regulated by

A

ACTH secreted by the anterior pituitary

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21
Q

what does the adrenal cortex secrete

A

steroid hormones structurally similar to cholesterol precursor

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22
Q

what are the 3 functional classes of adrenal hormones

A

-mineralocorticoids
- glucocorticoids
- sex hormones

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23
Q

what is the most common mineralocorticoid

A

aldosterone

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24
Q

what does aldosterone do

A

control electrolyte and fluid balance

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25
Q

what do mineralocorticoids do

A

-regulate Na and K levels via Na pumps especially in renal tubules
- regulate BP via JGA

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26
Q

what is the most common glucocorticoid

A

cortisol

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27
Q

what do glucocorticoids do

A

stimulate gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis which increase blood glucose
- increase metabolism and breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids

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28
Q

what do sex hormones do

A

supplement gonadal production

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29
Q

what are the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex from superficial to deep

A

zona glomerulosa, zons fasciculata, zona reticularis

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30
Q

what does the zona glomerulosa secrete

A

mineralocorticoids

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31
Q

what is the largest region in the adrenal cortex

A

zona glomerulosa

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32
Q

what cell is in the zona fasciculata

A

spongicytes

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33
Q

what does the zona fasciculata secrete

A

glucocorticoids and small amounts of androgens

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34
Q

what affect does cortisol have on the immune system

A

decreases immune response

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35
Q

what causes cortisol release

A

stress

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36
Q

what does the zona reticularis secrete

A

small quantities of andorgens and glucocorticoids

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37
Q

what is another term for hypoadrenocorticism

A

addison’s disease

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38
Q

what happens in addison’s disease

A

failure of the adrenal cortex to produce mineralo and glucocorticoids

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39
Q

what is addison’s disease usually caused by

A

atrophy of the gland often caused by autoimmune disease

40
Q

what is the result of decreased aldosterone

A

decreased ECF volume, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, mild acidosis -> shock, death
-AKA Addisonian crisis

41
Q

what is the result of decreased cortisol in glucose

A

decreased blood glucose

42
Q

what is the treatment for addisons disease

A

exogenous administration of meralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

43
Q

what is another term for hyperadrenocorticism

A

cushings disease

44
Q

what is the name for primary hyperadrenocorticism? secondary?

A

primary- adrenal hyperadrenocorticism
secondary- pituitary hyperadrenocorticism “classical form”

45
Q

what is primary hyperadrenocorticism caused by

A

general adrenal hyperplasia or functional tumor of adrenal cortex -> excess cortisol secretion

46
Q

what is secondary hyperadrenocorticism caused by

A

increased ACTH from anterior pituitary or other cortisol producing tumor

47
Q

what does increased ACTH secretion lead to

A

adrenal hyperplasia and excess cortisol secretion

48
Q

what is the adrenal medulla embryologically derived from

A

neuroectoderm

49
Q

what cells does the adrenal medulla contain

A

chromaffin cells

50
Q

what are chromaffin cells

A

modified, post ganglionic neuronal cells with secretory function

51
Q

what is the adrenal medulla controlled by

A

preganglionic, sympathetic nerve fibers

52
Q

what do chromaffin cells secrete

A

catecholamines such as adrenaline and noradrenaline

53
Q

what are catecholamines in the adrenal medulla stored in

A

dense core granules

54
Q

what does catecholamine release have a systemic effect on

A

adrenergic receptors throughout the body - especially skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

55
Q

what do catecholamines work in concert with glucocorticoids to do

A

prepare body for fight or flight response

56
Q

what does adrenaline promote in the liver

A

glycogenolysis for energy

57
Q

what is adrenaline responsible for the production of and what are they

A

enkephalins- endogenous opiates responsible for pain relief

58
Q

what is a pheochromocytoma

A

generally benign, functional tumor of chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla

59
Q

what are the symptoms of pheochromocytoms due to

A

increased epinephrine and norepinephrine secretion

60
Q

what are the symptoms of pheochromocytomas

A

hypertension, headache, cardiac arrhythmias, chest pain, anxiety, panic attacks, nausea

61
Q

what is the treatment for pheochromocytomas

A

surgical removal of tumor

62
Q

what does the bulk of the pancreas contain and what does it do

A

exocrine acini- secrete digestive products into the gut

63
Q

where do endocrine cells migrate in development and what do they form

A

migrate from duct system and aggregate around capillaries of pancreas to form islets of langerhand

64
Q

where are islets of langerhans located

A

distributed throughout exocrine pancreatic tissue

65
Q

what are the 3 main types of islet cells

A

alpha, beta, and delta

66
Q

what islet cells are most abundant to least

A

beta> alpha > delta

67
Q

what do alpha cells secrete and what does it do

A

secrete glucagon, increases blood glucose, stimulates glucogenesis and glycogenolysis

68
Q

what do beta cells secrete and what does it do

A

secrete insulin- decreases blood glucose and stimulates intracellular glycogen synthesis

69
Q

what do delta cells secrete and what does it do

A

secretes somatostatin- inhibits both insulin and glucagon production

70
Q

what do other miscellaneous cell types in the pancreas secrete

A

vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and pancreatic polypeptide (PP)

71
Q

what is diabetes characterized by

A

hyperglycemia and glucosuria

72
Q

what happens in type 1 diabetes

A

decreased insulin production

73
Q

what happens in type 2 diabetes

A

decreased number of insulin receptors or decreased responsiveness

74
Q

where is the pineal gland/body located

A

anterodorsal to cerebullem

75
Q

what does the pineal gland develop from

A

neuroectodeerm as evagination of posterior portion of third ventricle from roof of diencephalon

76
Q

what does the pineal gland do

A

communicates with hypothalamus; acts as photoreceptor in lower vertebrates

77
Q

how does the pineal gland act as a photoreceptor

A

translates light intensity and duration into endocrine activity- important in circadian rhythms and seasonal reproductive cycles

78
Q

what hormones does the pineal gland secrete

A

melatonin and serotonin

79
Q

what does melatonin do

A

stimulates melanopores, chromatophores -> change in color intensity with reproductive cycle

80
Q

what does serotonin do

A

vasoconstrictor and neurotransmitter

81
Q

what affect does melatonin have in mammals

A

anti-gonadal effect, decrease sex activity

82
Q

how does melatonin affect other hormones

A

-decreased GNRH from hypothalamus
- decreased sex hormone secretion from gonads

83
Q

what are the two main cell types in the pineal gland

A

pinealocytes and neuroglial cells

84
Q

what are pinealocytes and what do they secrete

A

highly modified neurons
- secrete melatonin and serotonin

85
Q

what are neuroglial cells

A

support cells such as astrocytes, microglial cells

86
Q

what might the pineal gland also contain

A

corpora arenacea

87
Q

what is corpora arenacea

A

calcified accretions of Ca and Mg phosphate in aging individuals, “brain sand”

88
Q

how do you identify the parathyroid

A

contains pale staining chief cells with clusters of larger, brighter pink oxyphil cells scattered throughout

89
Q

how do you identify adrenal gland

A

cortex contains three alternating bands of dark and light pink cells
- central medulla contains chromaffin cells

90
Q

what does the GI and respiratory endocrine system look like

A

a variety of endocrine cells scattered in the mucosa of GI, respiratory tract and other organs

91
Q

what do the cells of the GI and respiratory endocrine system do

A

secrete peptide and amine hormones such as gastrin, secretin, CCK, and serotonin with neurosecretory granules and hormone like activity

92
Q

what are the cells of the GI and respiratory endocrine system called

A

APUD cells - amine precursor uptake and decarboxylation

93
Q

how are APUD cells similar

A

similar ultrastructure and metabolic pathways, however not common ancestors because different embryological origins

94
Q

what are most APUD cells embryologically derived from

A

neural crest- aka neuroendocrine cells

95
Q

what are other APUD cells in the gut embryologically derived from

A

endoderm- enteroendocrine cells

96
Q

what are the best known examples of APUD cells

A

chromaffin cells, thyroid C cells, and pancreatic islets

97
Q

what do enteroendocrine cells in GI and respiratory tracts secrete

A

gastrin, CCK, VIP, substance P, serotonin and bombesin

Histology (27 decks)

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