Chapter 6-the Human Body Flashcards
Topographic anatomy
The superficial landmarks of the body that serve as guides to the structures that lie beneath them
Anatomic position
The position of reference in which the patient stands facing forwards, or is it the side with the palms of the hands forward
Are directional terms from your perspective or the patient’s perspective?
The patient’s perspective
What are the four planes of the body
The coronal plane, the transverse plane, The midsagittal plane, and the Sagittal plane
Coronal plane (frontal plane)
Divides the body into a front and back portion
Transverse (axial) plane
Divides the body into a top and bottom portion
Sagittal (lateral) plane
Divides the body into a left and right (not always equal) portions
The midsagittal plane (midline)
A type of Sagittal plane where the body is divided into equal left and right halves
Skelton
Gives the body it’s recognizable human form and protects the vital internal organs. It has 206 bones
Ligaments
Fibrous tissues that connects bones to each other
Tendons
Rope like structures that connect the muscles to bones
Cartilage
The smooth connective tissue that covers the ends of bones at mobile joints
What two main portions are the skeletal system divided into?
The axial skeleton, and the appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton
Forms the foundation to which the arms and legs are attached. It is composed of the skull facial bones, Thoracic cage, and vertebral column
Thoracic cage
The chest or rib cage
Appendicular skeleton
The arms and legs, their connective points, and the pelvis
Thorax
The chest cavity that contains the heart, lungs, esophagus, and great vessels
What two groups of bones are the skull composed of?
The cranium and the facial bones
The cranium
Composed of a number of thick bone is the fuse together to form a shell above the eyes and ears that holds and protects the brain
Foramen magnum
The large opening at the base of the skull that the brain connects to the spinal cord through
What four major bones make up the cranium?
Occiput bones, temporal bones, parietal bones, and frontal bone
Occiput
Most posterior bone of the cranium
Temporal bones
On each side of the cranium, the lateral portions (temples)
Parietal bones
Between the temporal region’s and the occiput
Frontal bone
The forehead
What bones make up the face?
The maxillae, zygomas, mandible, orbit nasal bones,
Maxillae
The upper, non-movable jaw bones
Zygomas
The cheek bones
Mandible
The lower, movable portion of the jaw
Orbit
Made up of two facial bones, the maxilla and the zygoma
How many bones does the spinal column have
33
Vertebrae
The name of the bones in the spine
Cervical spine
The first seven vertebrae in the neck form the cervical spine.
Thoracic spine
The next 12 vertebrae make up the Thoracic spine. One pair of ribs is attached to each of the thoracic vertebrae
Lumbar spine
The next five vertebrae from the lumbar spine after the thoracic spine
Sacrum
The five sacral vertebrae are fused together to form one bone called the sacrum
Coccyx
Last four vertebrae of the spine, also fused together to form the tailbone (or coccyx
Sternum
Located in the anterior midline of the chest
What are the three components of the sternum?
The manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process
Manubrium
The upper section of the sternum
The body (part of sternum)
The body makes up the rest of the sternum besides the manubrium, and xiphoid process
Xiphoid process
A cartilaginous Tip (inferior of sternum)
Joint
Consists of the ends of the bones that make up the joint in the surrounding connecting in supporting tissue
Symphysis
Joints with limited motion in which the bone ends are held together by fibrous tissue
Joint capsule
A fibrous sac that holds the bone ends of a joint together
Sacroiliac joint
A joint that is surrounded by tough, thick ligaments and has a little motion
Articular cartilage
The thin layer of cartilage that covers the ends of the bones in moving joints
Synovial membrane
A special tissue on the inner lining of the joint capsule
Synovial fluid
An oil like substance created by the synovial membrane that allows the ends of bones to glide over each other as opposed to rubbing and grading
Ball-and-socket joint
A joint that allows rotation and bending, like the shoulder
Hinge joints
Joints with motion restricted to flexion (bending) and extension (straightening)
The finger, knees, and elbows
Shoulder girdle
Where are three bones come together, allowing the arm to move
What are the three bones of the shoulder girdle
The clavicle, the scapula, and the humerus
Clavicle (collar bone)
Lateral to the sternum and anterior to the scapula
Scapula (shoulder blade)
Lies in the muscular tissue of the posterior thoracic wall
Humerus
Supporting born of the arm, it’s long straight shaft serves as an effective lever for heavy lifting
What to bones does the forearm consist of
The radius and the ulna
Ulna
Larger in the proximal forearm, and helps to form the elbow joint
Radius
Larger in the distal forearm, lies on the lateral or thumb side the forearm
What are the bones in your wrist called?
Carpal bones
What three bones does the pelvis consist of?
The sacrum and the two pelvic bones
Each pelvic bone is formed by the fusion of what three separate bones?
The ilium, ischium, and Pubis
Pubic symphysis
Where the left and right pubis join on the anterior side of the pelvic ring. It has cartilage within it that allows for slight motion
Acetabulum
The part of the pelvis where the leg connects to the hip joint
Femur (thigh bone)
The longest and one of the strongest bones in the body
Femoral head
At the superior end of the femur
Greater trochanter
The femur projection that is on the lateral/superior portion between the femoral neck and shaft
Lesser trochanter
The projection on the medial/inferior portion between the femoral neck and shaft
What are the projections of the femur for
They are the anchor points where the major muscles of the thigh connect to the femur
Patella (knee cap)
A specialized bone anterior to the knee
What two bones are the lower leg made up of?
The tibia and the fibula
Tibia (shinbone)
The larger bone and lies in the anterior of the leg
Fibula
Lies on the lateral side of the leg
Name the functions of the skeletal system
It gives the body shape
Provides protection of fragile organs
Allows for movement
Storage for calcium
Musculoskeletal system
Refers to the bones and voluntary muscles of the body. Also protects the vital organs
What are the three types of muscle?
Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
Skeletal muscle
Attached to the Bones of the body skeleton, forms The major muscle mass of the body
Smooth muscle
Found within blood vessels and intestines
Cardiac muscle
Only found within the heart is able to create and conduct its own electrical pulses
Voluntary muscle
Skeletal Muscle, is under direct voluntary control of the brain and can be stimulated to contract or rest at will
Involuntary muscle
A muscle over which you have no conscious control, such as the heart
Biceps
Muscle of the upper arms, located on the anterior part of the humerus
What are the functions of the musculoskeletal system?
Ability to move in manipulate your environment is made possible by the contraction and relaxation of this system
When you get cold, your muscles involuntary shake or shiver to produce and maintain Homeostasis
Respiratory system
Consists of all of the structures of the body that contribute to respiration, or the process of breathing. Includes the nose, mouth, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles. Also the lungs, and the diaphragm
Nasopharynx
Above the roof of the mouth and soft palate
What to passageways are located at the bottom of the pharynx?
The trachea (windpipe) and the esophagus
Trachea
Approximately 5 inches long and is a semirigid, enclosed air tube made up of rings of cartilage that are open in the back. The rings of cartilage keep the trachea from collapsing when air moves into and out of the lungs
What does the upper airway include?
Includes the nose, mouth, tongue, jaw, pharynx, and larynx
Larynx
Usually considered the dividing line between the upper and lower airway, it is a complex arrangement of cartilage, small bones, muscle, and two vocal chords. The larynx won’t tolerate any food or liquid, or you will have a violent coughing session
Oropharynx
The throat. The nose and mouth lead up to the oropharynx.
Epiglottis
Leaf shaped flap protecting the opening of the trachea. This flap allows air to pass in the trachea but prevents food and liquid from entering the airway under normal circumstances
Adam’s apple (thyroid cartilage)
Tends to be more visible in men, is in the anterior midline portion of the neck. Tiny muscles open and close the vocal cords and control tension on them
Circoid cartilage
Immediately below the thyroid cartilage is the palpable circoid cartilage.
Cricothyroid membrane
Between the thyroid and cricoid cartilage lies the cricothyroid membrane
What holds the two lungs in place?
The trachea, the arteries and veins, in the pulmonary ligaments.
Alveoli
(In the lungs) The bronchioles end in about 700 million tiny grape like air sacs called alveoli
Pleura
Smooth, glistening tissue covering each lung
Diaphragm
Has voluntary and involuntary muscles. Divides the thorax from the abdomen and is pierced by the great vessels and the esophagus. When you sleep it is automatic, yet you can suppose to hold your breath
Ventilation
The simple movement between air and the environment
Respiration
The process of gas exchange
Diffusion
A passive process in which molecules move from an area with a higher concentration of molecules to an area of lower concentration
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
A colorless fluid in and around the brain and the spinal cord the cushions the structures and filters out impurities and toxins
Hypoxic drive
When the oxygen level falls, the system will also stimulate breathing. The “backup system”
Tidal volume
The amount of air that is moved into or out of the lungs during a single breath, generally 500 mL in an adult
Inspiratory reserve volume
The deepest breath you can take after a normal breath
Expiratory reserve volume
The maximum amount of air that you can forcibly breathe out after a normal breath
Residual volume
Gas that remains in the lungs after exhalation to keep the lungs open
Dead space
The portion of the respiratory system that has no Alveoli, and therefore a little or no exchange of gas between air and blood occurs
Minute volume
A measure used to assess the amount of air that moves in and out of the longs in one minute. Minute volume = respiratory rate x title volume
Characteristics of normal breathing
- a normal rate and depth
- a regular rhythm or pattern of inhalation and exhalation
- clear, audible breath sounds on both sides of the chest
- regular rise and fall movement on both sides of the chest
- movement is the abdomen
Labored breathing
When you are working hard to breath
Signs a person is not breathing well
- muscle retractions above the clavicles, between the ribs, and below the rib cage, especially in children
- pale or cyanotic
- cool, damp or clammy
- tripod position
Agonal gasps
Patient in cardiac arrest may appear to be breathing, these occasional, gasping breath’s are called agonal gasps and occur when the respiratory center in the brain continues to send signals to the breathing muscles
Circulatory system
A complex arrangement of connected tubes, including the arteries, arterials, capillaries, venules, and veins
What are the two circuits in the body?
The systematic circulation in the body, and the pulmonary circulation in the lungs
Heart
A hollow muscular organ approximately the size of a clenched fist. It is made of specialized muscle tissue called cardiac muscle or myocardium and works as two paired pumps
Myocardium
Cardiac muscle
Atrium
The upper chamber of the heart
Ventricle
The lower chamber of the heart
Pulmonary veins
The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs to the pulmonary veins and to the left Atrium, where it then moves to the left ventricle
Chordae tendinea
Thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting
Heart rate
The speed of contractions of the heart
Stroke volume (SV)
The amount of blood moved in one beat
Cardiac output (CO)
Amount of blood moved in a minute
CO=HRxSV
Tunica media
The middle layer of the artery. Where smooth muscles are found that can contract in dilate to change the diameter of the blood vessel
Aorta
The main artery leaving the back left side of the heart, it carries freshly oxygenated blood to the body
Pulmonary artery
Begins at the right side of the heart and carries oxygen depleted blood to the lungs
Arterioles
The smallest branches of an artery leading to the vast network of capillaries
Pulse
Palpated easiest at the neck, wrist, or groin, and is created by the force of pumping of blood out of the left ventricle and into the major arteries
Capillary vessels
Fragile divisions of the arterial system that allow contact between the blood and the cells of the tissues
Sphincters
Sphincters are small muscles in the arterials that can be open or closed
Superior vena cava
Carries blood returning from the head, neck, shoulders, and upper extremities
Inferior Venna cava
Blood from the abdomen, pelvis, and lower extremities passes through this
Systematic vascular resistance (SVR)
SVR is the resistance to bloodflow within all of the blood vessels except the pulmonary vessels
What is the spleen for?
all of the blood in the body passes to the spleen where it is filtered. Worn out blood cells, foreign substances, and bacteria are removed from the blood, and hemoglobin is recycled
What are the four elements of blood?
Plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, Platelets, and protein molecules
Plasma
It’s sticky, yellow fluid that carries the blood cells and nutrients. This is the liquid portion of the blood.
Red blood cells (erythocytes)
Contain hemoglobin, which gives blood it’s red color. Hemoglobin is responsible for carrying oxygen.
White blood cells (leukocytes)
Plays a role in the body’s immune defense mechanisms against infection
Platelets
Tiny, disc shaped elements that are much smaller than the cells. They are essential in the initial formation of a blood clot
Blood pressure (BP)
The pressure of the blood exerts against the walls of the arteries as it passes through them
Systole
A phase of muscular contraction where the cardiac muscle of the left ventricle contracts and pumps blood from the ventricle into the aorta
Diastole
when the muscle of the ventricle relaxes and the ventricles filled with blood
Sphygmomanometer
Blood pressure cuff
Perfusion
The circulation of blood in an organ or tissue in adequate amounts to meet the cells current needs
Shock (hypo perfusion)
The state of in adequate circulation when it involves the whole body
Interstitial space
Space between the cells
What two main forces are at work inside the capillary
The hydrostatic pressure, and oncotic pressure
Hydrostatic pressure
Occurs as fluid pushes against a vessel walls to force fluid out of the capillary
Oncotic pressure
The opposing force and occurs because proteins in the blood plasma cause water to be pulled in the capillary by diffusion
Epinephrine and non-epinephrine
Also knows as adrenaline and non adrenaline, and is secreted to stimulate the heart and blood vessels and improves the ability to cope with stress, known as the fight or flight reaction
Adrenergic
Refers to the adrenal gland
Nervous system
Composed of two major structures, the brain and the spinal cord, and thousands of nerves that allow every part of the body to communicate.
What two main portions is the nervous system divided into?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
The nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord that link the central nervous system to various organs of the body
Somatic nervous system
Regulates activities over which there is voluntary control, such as walking, talking, and writing.
Autonomic nervous system
Controls the many body functions that occur without voluntary control, including digestion, dilation and constriction of the blood vessels, sweating, and all other involuntary actions that are necessary for basic body functions
Brain
The controlling organ of the body. It is the center of consciousness. It is responsible for all of your voluntary body activities, your perception of your surroundings, and the control of your reactions to the environment
What are the three major subdivisions of the brain?
The cerebellum, the cerebrum, and the brain stem
Cerebrum
Largest part of the brain and is sometimes called the gray matter, makes up about 3/4 of the volume of the brain and is composed of four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The frontal lobe is responsible for the activity of all the voluntary muscles in the body. The parietal lobe can receive sensory impulses. your occipital lobe receives visual impulses. It’s also responsible for emotions and other characteristics
Cerebellum
The major function is to coordinate the various activities of the body, particularly body movements
Brainstem
Located deep in the cranium and is the best protected part of the central nervous system. The brainstem is the controlling center for virtually all body functions that are absolutely necessary for life
What three areas are in the brain stem?
The midbrain, the pons, and medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
And extension of the brainstem. Contains nerve cell bodies, but the major portion is made up of nerve fibers that extend from the cells of the brain. Transmits information to and from the brain
Parasympathetic nervous system
Generally slows down the body. Slows your heart rate and respiration is in allows your food to be properly digested.
What are the two types of nerves within the peripheral nervous system?
Sensory nerves and motor nerves
Sensory nerves
When a sensory cell is stimulated, it transmits its own special message to the brain. Sensory impulses constantly provide information to the brain about what the different parts of the body are doing in relation to your surroundings, continuously making you aware of your surroundings
Motor nerves
Carry information from the brain to the muscles of the body
Subcutaneous tissue
Layer that lies below the skin
Epidermis
Most superficial layer of the skin and berries in thickness in different areas of the body
Dermis
Sweat glands, oil glands, hair follicles, blood vessels, and specialized nerve endings. It’s the second layer of the skin
Sweat glands
Produce sweat for cooling the body
Mucous membranes
They line orifices, (openings to the body) mucous membranes are quite similar to skin because they provide a protective barrier against bacterial infection. However they secrete mucus
Mucus
It watery substance that lubricates the openings of the body
Digestion
The processing of food that nourishes the individual cells of the body
Abdomen
Second major body cavity, it contains the major organs of digestion and excretion
Cecum
Found in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen
Appendix
Attached to the lower border of the Cecum
Retroperitoneal
Organs that lie behind the abdominal cavity, such as the kidneys and pancreas
Salivary glands
Serves as a binder for the chewed food that is being swallowed in as a lubricant within the mouth
Esophagus
Contractions of the muscles in the wall of the esophagus propels food through it to the stomach
Pancreas
If flat, solid organ, lies below in behind the liver and stomach. It secretes pancreatic juice that contains enzymes that aid in the digestion of fat starch and protein. Also insulin and Glucagon are produced (regulate the amount of glucose in blood)
Liver
Largest solid organ in the abdomen and has several functions. Blood is filtered through the liver . Between. Five in 1 L of bile is made by the liver daily to assist in the normal digestion of fat. The liver is the main organ for the storage of sugar or starch for immediate use by the body for energy
Bile ducts
The liver is connected to the intestine by bile ducts
Small intestine
Major hollow organ of the abdomen. The small intestine is where 90% of digestion of food takes place
Large intestine
The job of the large intestine is to absorb the final 5 to 10% of digested food and water from the intestine to form a solid stool
Rectum
A large, hollow organ that is adapted to store quantities of feces until it is expelled
Lymph
A fluid that carries oxygen and nutrients to the cells and waste products of the metabolism away from the cells
Lymph nodes
Main job is to filter lymph
Endocrine system
A complex message and control system that integrates many body functions
Hormones
Can have stimulating or in inhibiting affect on the bodies organs and systems
Urinary system
Controls the discharge of certain waste materials filtered from the blood by the kidneys
The three main functions of the urinary system are
To control fluid balance in the body, to filter and aluminate waste, to control pH balance
Kidneys
These organs read the blood of toxic waste products in control its balance of water and salt
Vasa deferentia
What carries sperm during ejaculation
Ovaries
Produce sex hormones and specialized cells for reproduction
