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A&P I > Chapter 4 PPT > Flashcards

Chapter 4 PPT Flashcards

1
Q

What is metabolism?

A

The sum of all chemical reactions in the body

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2
Q

What is cellular metabolism?

A

sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a cell. Metabolic reactions usually occur in pathways or cycles

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3
Q

What are the two metabolic reactions?

A

Anabolism and Catabolism

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4
Q

What is Anabolism?

A

Small molecules are built into larger ones, requires energy

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5
Q

What is Catabolism?

A

Larger molecules are broken down into smaller, releases energy

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6
Q

Anabolism provides

A

materials for maintenance, cellular growth, and repair. Requires ATP made during catabolism

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7
Q

Example of Anabolsim?

A

Dehydration Synthesis

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8
Q

In Dehydration Synthesis, smaller

A

molecules are bound together to form larger ones

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9
Q

What is produced in hydration synthesis?

A

H2O

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10
Q

Anabolism used to produce

A

polysaccharides, proteins, and triglycerides

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11
Q

Catabolism breaks

A

down larger molecules into smaller ones; ATP is produced

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12
Q

Example of Catabolsim?

A

Hydrolysis

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13
Q

Catabolism used to

A

decompose carbohydrates, proteins, lipids

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14
Q

Catabolism uses

A

H2O to split the substances

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15
Q

Catabolism is reverse of

A

dehydration synthesis

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16
Q

All cells perform

A

catabolic and anabolic reactiosn

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17
Q

Enzymes control

A

rates of both catabolic and anabolic reactions

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18
Q

enzymes are globular proteins that

A

catalyze specific reactions

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19
Q

enzymes increases

A

rates of chemical reactions

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20
Q

enzymes lower

A

the activation energy necessary to start reactions

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21
Q

Shape of enzyme is

A

vital to its functioning

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22
Q

Factors that can alter conformation of an enzyme

A 
Excess Heat
Radiation
Electricity
Specific Chemicals
Extreme pH Values
Some Poisons
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23
Q

What is Denaturation?

A

Inactivation of enzyme due to an irreversible chang in its conformation

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24
Q

What is a “Metabolome”

A

All small molecules that are part of the metabolism in a cell, tissue, organ, organism

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25
Q

Human Metabolome Database stores

A

vast amounts of information about these molecules, also called :metabolites”

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26
Q

What are metabolic pathways?

A

Sries of enzyme-controlled reactions leading to formation of a product. Each new substrate is the production of the previous reaction

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27
Q

Names of enzymes often

A

Contain name of substrate, and ends in ase

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28
Q

Each step of a pathway is

A

catalyzed by a different enzyme

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29
Q

A regulatory enzyme that catalyzes one step of pathway typically

A

sets rate for entire reaction sequence

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30
Q

What is the rate-limiting enzyme ?

A

Number of molecules of this enzyme is limited. and is often the first enzyme in the reaction sequencec

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31
Q

What is a cofactor?

A

Non-protein substance that combines with the enzyme to activate it

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32
Q

Cofactor- some help fold

A

active site into proper conformation

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33
Q

Cofactor - some help bind

A

enzyme to substrate

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34
Q

Cofactor- can be

A

ion, element, or small organic molecule

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35
Q

Coenzyme is

A

organic molecule that acts as a cofactor.

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36
Q

Coenzyme - most are

A

vitamins, which are essential organic molecules that humans must get from their diet

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37
Q

Inborn Errors of Metabolism

A

Deficient or absent enzyme blocks metabolic pathway that it catalyzes. Results in accumulation of enzymes substrate, and a deficiency of its product

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38
Q

Example of Inborn Errors of Metabolism

A

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

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39
Q

What is PKU?

A

Missing/nonfunctional enzyme blocks conversion of amino acid, phenylamine, into the amino acid, tyrosine. Excess phenylalnine enters blood and poisions the brain. Can be treated with special diet

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40
Q

Energy is

A

the capacity to change something, or the ability to do work

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41
Q

Common forms of energy

A

heat, light, sound, electrical energy, mechanical energy, chemical energy

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42
Q

Cellular respiration is a

A

process that transfers energy from molecules, and makes it available for cellular use

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43
Q

ATP carries

A

energy in a form the cell can use. Main energy carrying molecule in the cell.

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44
Q

ATP consists of what 3 portions?

A

Adenine
Ribose (A Sugar)
3 Phosphates In A Chain

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45
Q

SEcond and third phosphates are

A

attached by high energy bonds; energy can be quickly transferred to other molecules

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46
Q

Wen ATP loses terminal phosphate, it

A

becomes ADP

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47
Q

ADP can be converted back into ATP by

A

attaching a third phosphate, called phosphorylation

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48
Q

Phosphorlation requires

A

energy from cellular respiration

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49
Q

ATP and ADP cycle

A

back and forth between cellular respiration and energy-utilizing reactions

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50
Q

Energy is held in

A

chemical bonds, and released when bonds are broken

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51
Q

Oxidation releases energy from

A

glucose

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52
Q

In cells, enzymes initiate oxidation by

A

lowering activation energy

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53
Q

Energy is transferred to ATP, whats the ratio?

A

40% is released as chemical energy

60% is released as heat

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54
Q

Cellular Respiration of glucose occurs in what 3 interconnected reaction sequences?

A

Glycolysis (anaerobic)

Citric Acid Cycle (Aerobic)

ETC/Oxidative Phosphorylation (Aerobic)

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55
Q

Glycolysis and ETC are

A

stepwise reaction sequences

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56
Q

Citric Acid Cycle occurs in a

A

cycle; final products reacts to replenish original substrate

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57
Q

Cellular respiration of glucose requires

A

a supply of glucose and O2

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58
Q

Products of cellular respiration?

A

CO2

Water

ATP

Heat

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59
Q

Cellular Respiration includes what two reactions?

A

Aerobic; Require O2, make most of ATP

Anerobic: DO not require O2, and make little ATP

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60
Q

Glycolysis is the first

A

reaction sequence of glucose breakdown

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61
Q

Glysolysis is a series of

A

10 reactiosn

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62
Q

Glycolysis breaks down

A

glucose (6-carbon) into 2 pyruvic acid (3-carbon) molecules

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63
Q

Glycolysis occurs in

A

cytosol

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64
Q

Glycolysis is in the

A

anaerobic phase of cellular respiration

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65
Q

Glycolysis yields

A

2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule broken down

66
Q

3 Phases of Glycolysis

A

Phosphorylation of GLucose

Splitting/Cleavage of Glucose into 2 3-Carbon Molecules

Production of NADH, ATP, and 2 Molecules of Pyruvic Acid

67
Q

Glycolysis; Phase 1

A

Phosphorylation

Glucose is phosphorylated; 2 APT is used

68
Q

Glycolysis; Phase 2

A

Splitting

6-C molecule cleaves into 2 3-carbon molecules

69
Q

Glycolysis; Phase 3

A

ATP Formation and Release of Electrons

2 Pyruvic Acid formed
4 ATP Formed
2 NADH and H+ Formed

70
Q

In presence of O2,

A

NADH and H+ deliver electrons to the ETC, with oxygen as the final electron acceptor

71
Q

In absence of O2,

A

there is no electron acceptor

72
Q

How is Lactic Acid Formed?

A

When NADH and H+ deliver electrons and H+ back to Pyruvic Acid

73
Q

Buildup of lactic acid inhibits

A

glycolysis, with atp production decreasing

74
Q

Glycolysis produces much less

A

ATP than aerobic respiration

75
Q

In anaerobic reactions, net gain of atp per molecule of glucose?

A

2

76
Q

Aerobic Reactions Include

A

Synthesis of Acetyl Coenzyme A

Citric Acid Cycle

ETC

77
Q

Aerobic reaction begins with

A

pyruvic aciid moving from cytosol to mitochondria

78
Q

Pyruvic acid is used to produce

A

Acetyl CoA

79
Q

End products of Aerobic Reaction is

A

CO2, H2O and up to 36 ATP per molecule of glucose

80
Q

Citric Acid Cycle begins when

A

Acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetic acid to produce citric acid

81
Q

Citric acid is changed into

A

oxaloacetic acid thorugh a series of reactions

82
Q

Citric Acid Cycle repeats as long as

A

pruvic acid and o2 are available

83
Q

For each citric acid molecule

A

1 atp is produced

8 hydrogen atoms are transferred to NAD+ and FAD 2 CO2 are produced

84
Q

ETC - NADH and FADH2 carry

A

hydrogen and high energy electrons to the ETC

85
Q

ETC is a series of

A

enzyme complexes (electron cariers) located in the inner membrane of mitochondria

86
Q

ETC- Energy from

A

electrons is transferred to the enzyme aTP synthase

87
Q

ETC - ATP synthase

A

uses energy to catalyze phosphorylation to ADP to ATP

88
Q

ETC - What is formed?

A

H2O is formed, with oxygen is the final electron “carrier”

89
Q

Carbohydrate molecules from foods can enter catabolic pathways

A

for energy production

90
Q

carbohydrate molecules from foods can enter anabolic pathways

A

for storage

91
Q

carbohydrate molecules from foods can react

A

to form some of the amino acids

92
Q

excess glucose can be converted into and stored as

A

glycogen and fat

93
Q

Glucose - Glycogen

A

most cells, but liver and muscle cells store the most

94
Q

Glucose - Fat

A

To store in adipose tissue

95
Q

What is genetic information?

A

Instructions to tell cells how to construct proteins; stored in DNA sequence

96
Q

What is a gene?

A

Sequence of DNA that contains information for making 1 protein

97
Q

What is a genome?

A

Complete set of genetic information in cell

98
Q

What is exome?

A

Small portion of genome that codes for proteins

99
Q

What is agene expression?

A

Control of which proteins are produced in each cell type, in what amount, and under which circumstances

100
Q

Nucleotides are

A

building blocks of DNA

101
Q

Nucleotides consist of

A

5-carbon sugar, deoxyribose

A phosphate group

A nitrogenous base (A,C, G,T)

102
Q

Backbone of each strand is a

A

sugar-phosphate chain

103
Q

Bases from the 2 complementary strands link together by

A

hydrogen bonds: C-G, A-T

104
Q

How are chromosomes formed?

A

When DNA wraps around histone proteins

105
Q

Human genome contains

A

3.2 billion bits of information

106
Q

What is DNA Replication?

A

Process that produces an exact copy of a DNA molecules; occurs during interphase

107
Q

Step 1 in DNA Replication

A

Hydrogen bond breaks between base pairs

108
Q

Step 2 in DNA Replication

A

Strands unwind and separate

109
Q

Step 3 in DNA Replication

A

New nucleotides pair with exposed bases, under direction of DNA polymerase

110
Q

Step 4 in DNA Replication

A

Other enzymes connect new sugar-phosphate backbone

111
Q

genetic information store

A

correct sequence of amino acids for a polypeptide chain

112
Q

Triplet Code

A

a sequence of 3 nucleotides that represent an amino acid, or signals beginning or end of a protein

113
Q

What determines the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide?

A

Sequences of bases in a gene

114
Q

Protein synthesis occurs in

A

cytoplasm

115
Q

RNA copies and

A

transfers information from DNA to the cytoplasm

116
Q

RNA molecules are single

A

strands of nucleotides

117
Q

Complementary base pairing in RNA

A

A-U, C-G

118
Q

Transcription

A

Process of copying DNA sequence onto an RNA sequence

119
Q

mRNA

A

CArries genetic code from DNA to ribosome

120
Q

RNA Polymerase

A

Enzyme that catalyzes the formation of mRNA from the proper strand of DNA

121
Q

First Step in Transcription of mRNA

A

RNA polymerase recognizes correct strand of DNA to copy

122
Q

Second Step in Transcription of mRNA

A

A section of DNA unwinds to expose the gene coding for the particular protein

123
Q

Thrid Step in Transcription of mRNA

A

Complementary mRNA nucleotides pair with the DNA bases (Uracil used instead of Thymine)

124
Q

Fourth Step in Transcription of mRNA

A

Termination signal indicates end of gene

125
Q

Fifth Step in Transcription of mRNA

A

New mRNA strand is released, and DNA rewinds into double helix

126
Q

Sixth Step in Transcription of mRNA

A

The mRNA now leaves the nucleus through a nuclear pore, and attaches to a ribosome in the cytoplasm

127
Q

What is a codon?

A

Each amino acid is specified by a sequence of 3 bases in DNA

128
Q

Protein synthesis occurs in

A

cytoplasm

129
Q

mRNA leaves

A

nucleus and binds to ribosome, to act as template for protein synthesis

130
Q

At the ribosome, the genetic code, carried by mRNA, is

A

used to synthesize a protein

131
Q

What is Translation?

A

Process of converting the genetic code, carried by mRNA, into a sequence of amino acids that becomes a protein

132
Q

Protein synthesis requires that

A

amino acids are added to growing polypeptide chain in proper sequence

133
Q

tRNA aligns

A

amino acids during protein synthesis, along the mRNA strand on the ribosome

134
Q

tRNA binds to

A

its amino acids, transports it to a ribosome, binds to the mRNA according to its sequence, and adds its amino acid to the growing polypeptide chain

135
Q

Each tRNA contains

A

a sequence of 3 nucleotide bases, the anticodon, which binds to complementary codon on the mRNA strand

136
Q

AS the ribosome moves down the mRNA, each

A

tRNA brings in its amino cid to be added to the growing protein

137
Q

How many types of amino acids are there?

A

20

138
Q

How many possible codons are there ?

A

64

139
Q

What is the initiation codon?

A

AUG, codes for Methionine, and signals the start of a protein

140
Q

How many codons are stop codons?

A

3

141
Q

Protein synthesis occurs on

A

ribosomes

142
Q

mRNA is used as

A

a template for protein syntehsis

143
Q

tRNA brings

A

amino acids to the ribosome, and binds to mRNA, to ad its amino acid to the growing protein chain

144
Q

Ribosomes are organelles composed of

A

rRNA and protein molecules

2 unequal subunits

145
Q

Binding of tRNA and mRNA occurs in

A

association with a ribosome

146
Q

Ribosomes move down mRNA molecule, bringing

A

in tRNAs carrying the proper amino acid to add to the growing protein chain

147
Q

Amino Acids are joined by

A

peptide bonds

148
Q

First step in Translation

A

A ribosome binds to the mRNA near the codon at the beginning of the messenger strand

149
Q

Second step in Translation

A

A tRNA molecule that has the complementary anticodon brings its amino acid to the ribosome

150
Q

Third step in Translation

A

A second tRNA brings the next amino acid to the ribosome

151
Q

Fourth step in Translation

A

a peptide bond forms between the two amino acids, and the first tRNA is released

152
Q

Fifth step in Translation

A

This process repeats for each codon in the mRNA sequence as the ribosome moves along its length, forming a chain of amino acids

153
Q

sixth step in Translation

A

the growing amino acid chain folds into the unique conformation of a functional protein

154
Q

seventh step in Translation

A

the completed protein molecule is released . The mRNA, ribosome, and tRNAs are recycles

155
Q

Mutations are

A

changes in DNA sequence

156
Q

Mutations occur when

A

bases are changed, added, or deleted

157
Q

Mutations can be

A

spontaneous or induced

158
Q

Spontaneous Mutation

A

Due to insertion of unstable base into DNA sequence

159
Q

Induced Mutation

A

due to exposure to mutagents, chemicals, or radiation that causes mutation

160
Q

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy results from

A

a muttion in the gene coding for dystrophin; muscle cells collapse, resulting in severe muscle weakness

161
Q

DNA repair

A

Correction of mismatched nucleotides by a repair enzyme

A&P I (33 decks)

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