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BIOL 235 > Chapter 23 > Flashcards

Chapter 23 Flashcards

1
Q

Respiration

A

The process of supply in the body with oxygen and removing CO2

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2
Q

What are the three basic steps of respiration?

A
  1. Pulmonary ventilation or breathing
  2. External (pulmonary) respiration - is the exchange of gases between the alveoli of the lungs and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries across the respiration membrane in the process pulmonary capillaries gain 02 and loose CO2
  3. Internal (tissue) respiration - The exchange of gases between blood and systemic capillaries and tissue cells in the step the blood loses oh to engage in CO2 within cells the metabolic reactions that consume O2 and give off CO2 during production of ATP are termed cellular respiration
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3
Q

What are the components of the respiratory system?

A

Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs

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4
Q

What does the respiratory system consist of structurally?

A
  1. Upper respiratory system includes the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, and associated structures
  2. Lower respiratory system includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
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5
Q

What does the respiratory system consist of functionally?

A
  1. The conducting zone consists of a series of interconnected cavities and tubes both outside and within the lungs these include the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles

their function is the filter warm and moist and air in conducted into the lungs

  1. The respiratory zone consists of tubes and tissues within the lungs where gas exchange occurs these include the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli and are

the main site of gas exchange between Air and blood

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6
Q

What are the functions of the respiratory system?

A
  1. Provides for gas exchange intake of O2 for delivery to body cells and removal of CO2 produced by the body cells
  2. Contains receptors for sense of smell, filters inspired air, produces vocal sounds and excrete small amounts of water and heat
  3. Helps regulate blood pH
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7
Q

Parts of external nose?

A

Boney framework - made up of the frontal bone, nasal bones, and maxillae

Cartilaginous framework - Septal nasal cartilage- forms the anterior portion of the nasal septum; lateral nasal cartilage -forms inferior to the nasal bones; Alara cartilage -form the portion of the walls of the nostrils

External nares or nostrils -which lead into cavities called the nasal vestibules

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8
Q

What are the three functions of the interior structures of the external nose ?

A
  1. Warming, moistening, and filtering incoming air
  2. Detecting olfactory stimuli
  3. Modifying speech vibrations as they pass through the large, hollow, resonating chambers
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9
Q

Resonance

A

Refers to prolonging, amplifying, or modifying a sound vibration

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10
Q

Nasal cavity

A

Internal nose

a large space in the anterior aspect of the skull that lies inferior to the nasal bone and superior to the oral cavity

lined with muscle and mucus membrane and a vertical partition the nasal septum

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11
Q

Internal nares

A

Choanae

Two openings that communicate with the pharynx

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12
Q

Paranasal sinuses

A

Drains mucus

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13
Q

Nasolacrimal ducts

A

Drains tears

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14
Q

Respiratory region

A

Larger, inferior nasal cavity region

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15
Q

Olfactory region

A

Smaller, superior nasal cavity

Lines with Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with numerous goblet cells

Frequently called the respiratory epithelium

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16
Q

Nasal vestibule

A

Anterior portion of nasal cavity just inside the nostrils

Surrounded by cartilage

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17
Q

What extends out of each lateral wall of the nasal cavity?

A

Shelves formed by projections of the superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae

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18
Q

What cells make up the olfactory epithelium?

A

The olfactory receptor cells, supporting cells, and basal cells which lie in the respiratory region

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19
Q

What is the pharynx function as?

A

A passage way for air and food, provides a resonating chamber for speech sounds, and houses the tonsils which participate in immunological reactions against foreign invaders

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20
Q

What are the three anatomical regions the pharynx can be divided into?

A
  1. Nasopharynx
  2. Oropharynx
  3. Laryngopharynx
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21
Q

Nasopharynx

A

Superior portion of the pharynx lies posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the soft palate

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22
Q

Soft palate

A

Forms the posterior portion of the roof of the mouth is an arch shaped muscular partition between the nasal pharynx and oropharynx, lined by mucous membranes

five openings in its wall: two internal nares, two openings that lead into the auditory tubes (commonly known as the eustachian tubes),and the opening into the oropharynx

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23
Q

Pharyngeal tonsil

A

Found in the posterior wall

also called adenoid

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24
Q

Oropharynx

A

Intermediate portion of the pharynx

lies posterior to the oral cavity and extends from the soft palette inferiorly to the level of the hyoid bone

one opening the fauces (mouth opening)

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25
Q

What are the two tonsils in the mouth?

A

Palatine and lingual tonsils

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26
Q

Laryngopharynx

A

Inferior portion of the pharynx

Also called the hypopharynx

Opens into the esophagus (food tube) posteriorly and the larynx (voice box)anteriorly

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27
Q

Larynx

A

The voice box is a short passageway that connects the laryngeal pharynx with the trachea

lies in the midline of the neck to the Esophagus

composed of nine pieces of cartilage

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28
Q

The cavity of the larynx

A

The space that extends from the entrance into the larynx down the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage

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29
Q

Laryngeal vestibule

A

Above the vestibular folds

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30
Q

Infraglottic cavity

A

Portion of the cavity below the vocal folds

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31
Q

Thyroid cartilage

A

Adam’s apple

Consists of two fused plates of hyaline cartilage that formed the anterior wall of the larynx and give it a triangular shape

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32
Q

Epiglottis

A

Large leaf shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is covered with epithelium

the “stem”of the epiglottis is the tapered inferior portion that is attached to the rim of the thyroid cartilage

the broad superior “leaf” portion of the epiglottis is unattached and is free to move up and down like a trapdoor during swallowing

the pharynx and larynx rise

elevation of the pharynx widens it to receive food or drink
elevation of the larynx causes the epiglottis to move down and form a lid over the glottis closing it off

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33
Q

Glottis

A

Consists of a pair folds of mucous membrane, the vocal folds in the larynx, in the space between them called the Rima glottidis

Keeps liquids and solids in the esophagus and out of larynx and airways

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34
Q

Cricoid cartilage

A

Is a ring of hyaline cartilage that forms the inferior wall of the larynx

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35
Q

Arytenoid cartilages

A

Triangular pieces of mostly hyaline cartilage located at the posterior, superior border of the cricoid cartilage

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36
Q

Corniculate cartilage

A

Horn shaped pieces of elastic cartilages, located at apex of each arytenoid cartilage

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37
Q

Where do the cilia in the upper respiratory tract move mucous and trapped particles?

A

Down toward the pharynx; Cilia in the lower respiratory tract move them up towards the pharynx

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38
Q

Structures a voice production?

A

Vestibular folds (false vocal cords) superior pair

inferior pair vocal folds (true vocal cord)

Rima vestibuli - space between vestibular folds

Laryngeal ventricle - Lateral expansion of the middle portion of the laryngeal cavity inferior to the vestibular folds and superior to the vocal folds

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39
Q

What is the principal structure of voice production?

A

Vocal folds

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40
Q

What is pitch controlled by?

A

Tension on the vocal folds

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41
Q

What does sound originate from?

A

Vibration on the vocal folds

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42
Q

Trachea

A

Wind pipe

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43
Q

What are the layers of the trachea wall From deep to superficial?

A
  1. Mucosa
  2. Submucosa
  3. Hyaline cartilage
  4. Adventitia
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44
Q

Open part of each C-shaped cartilage ring faces posteriorly towards the open esophagus and is spanned by what?

A

Fibromuscular membrane

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45
Q

What are the transverse smooth muscle fibres called in the fibromuscular membrane?

A

Trachealis muscle

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46
Q

At the superior border of the fifth thoracic vertebrae the trachea divides into right and left what?

A

Right (main) primary bronchus, which goes into the right lung, More vertical shorter and wider than left more likely and aspirated object will lodge in the right

left (main) primary bronchus which goes into the left lung

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47
Q

Carina

A

An internal Ridge at the point where the trachea divides into right and left main bronchi

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48
Q

The main bronchi divide to form smaller bronchi called what?

A

Lobar (secondary) bronchi

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49
Q

The lobar bronchi continue to branch forming still smaller bronchi called what?

A

Segmental (tertiary) bronchi

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50
Q

What did the segmental bronchi further divide into?

A

Bronchioles

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51
Q

What do the bronchioles that continue to divide into even smaller tubes called?

A

Terminal bronchioles

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52
Q

What kind of cells to the terminal bronchioles contain?

A

Club (cara) cells
Columnar
Nonciliated cells interspersed among epithelial cells

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53
Q

Bronchial tree

A

Extensive branching from the trachea through the terminal bronchioles resembling an inverted tree

54
Q

Structural changes as branching becomes more extensive in the bronchial tree?

A
  1. Mucous membrane in the bronchial tree changes from ciliated pseudostratified Columnar epithelium in the main bronchi, lobar bronchi, and segmental bronchi to Ciliated simple columnar epithelium with some goblet cells in larger bronchioles to mostly Ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium with no goblet cells in smaller bronchioles to mostly Nonciliated simple cuboidal epithelium in terminal bronchioles
  2. Plates of cartilage Gradually replace the incomplete rings of cartilage in main bronchi and finally disappear in the distal bronchioles
  3. Is the amount of cartilage decreases the amount of smooth muscle increases
55
Q

Lungs

A

Paired cone shaped organs in the thoracic cavity

separated from each other by the heart and other structures of the mediastinum

Protected by a double layered serous membrane called the pleural membrane or pleura

Parietal pleura lines the wall of the thoracic cavity

Visceral pleura covers the lungs themselves

Pleural cavity is between the visceral and parietal pleura

Pleural fluid reduces friction between the membranes

56
Q

Cardiac notch

A

A concavity on the left lung where the apex of the heart lies

57
Q

Both lungs have what kind of fissure?

A

Oblique

58
Q

What does the oblique Fissure separate in the left lung?

A

Superior and inferior lobes

59
Q

The right lung contains an oblique and what other kind of fissure?

A

Horizontal fissure

60
Q

How do you the fissures in the right lung separate the lung?

A

Superior oblique separates inferior love from the middle lobe which is bordered superiorly by the horizontal fissure

61
Q

The right main bronchus gives rise to what three lobar bronchi?

A

Superior, middle, and inferior lobar bronchi

62
Q

The left main bronchus gives rise to what bronchi?

A

Superior and inferior lobar bronchi

63
Q

What is the portion of lung tissue that each segmental bronchus supplies called?

A

Bronchopulmonary segment

64
Q

Alveolar sac

A

The terminal dilation of an alveolar duct

65
Q

What are the two types of alveolar epithelial cells?

A

Type one alveolar (squamous pulmonary epithelial) cells - Simple squamous epithelial cells that form a nearly continuous lining of the alveolar walls and is the more numerous, main site of gas exchange

Type two alveolar cells/septal cells -
If you were a number and found between type one alveolar cells type 2 aveolar cells rounded or cuboidal epithelial cells with free surfaces containing microvilli secrete alveolar fluid which keeps the surface between the cells and the air moist

66
Q

Surfactant

A

Included in the alveolar fluid and is a complex mixture of phospholipids and Lipo proteins

lowers the surface tension of alveolar fluid which reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse

maintains patency

67
Q

Alveolar macrophages

A

Dust cells

Removes fine dust and other other debris from alveolar spaces

68
Q

Respiratory membrane

A

Formed by the alveolar and Capillery walls, extending from the alveolar airspace to blood plasma

69
Q

What are the four layers of the respiratory membrane?

A
  1. A layer of type one and type two alveolar cells and associated alveolar macrophages that constitutes the alveolar walls
  2. An epithelial basement membrane underlining the alveolar wall
  3. A Capillary basement membrane that is often fused to the epithelial basement membrane
  4. The capillary endothelium
70
Q

Where do the lungs receive blood from?

A

Pulmonary arteries and bronchial arteries

71
Q

How does deoxygenated blood reach the lungs?

A

Passes through the pulmonary trunk which divides into a left pulmonary artery that enters the left and right pulmonary artery that enters the right lungs

72
Q

How does oxygenated blood return to the heart from the lungs?

A

By one of the four pulmonary veins which drain into the left atrium

73
Q

Ventilation perfusion coupling

A

Vasoconstriction in the lungs respond to hypoxia by diverting pulmonary blood from poorly ventilated areas of the lungs to well ventilated regions for more efficient gas exchange

in other body tissues hypoxia causes dilation of blood vessels to increase blood flow

74
Q

Pulmonary ventilation

A

Otherwise known as breathing

The flow of air into and out of the lungs

75
Q

Boyles law

A

The inverse relationship between volume and pressure

The pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of the container

so if a closed container size is increased the pressure of the gas inside the container decreases, and if the size of the container is decreased then the pressure inside is increased

76
Q

What is the most important muscle of inhalation?

A

The diaphragm

77
Q

What is the second most important muscle of inhalation?

A

The external intercostals

78
Q

Intrapleural pressure

A

The pressure within the pleural cavity

79
Q

Aveolar (intrapulmonic) pressure

A

The pressure of air within the alveoli of the lungs

80
Q

Elastic recoil

A

The natural tendency of the chest wall and lungs to spring back after they have been stretched

81
Q

What are the two inwardly directed forces that contribute to elastic recoil?

A
  1. The recoil of elastic fibres that were stretched during inhalation
  2. The Inward pull of surface tension due to the film of intrapleural fluid between the visceral and parietal pleura
82
Q

What are some factors that affect pulmonary ventilation?

A
  1. Surface tension of alveolar fluid
  2. Compliance of the lungs
  3. Airway resistance
83
Q

Surface tension of alveolar fluid

A

A thin layer of alveolar fluid that coats the luminal surface of the alveoli and exert a force

Arises at all air water interfaces because the polar water molecules are more strongly attracted to each other than they are to the gas molecules in the air

84
Q

Compliance of the lungs

A

How much effort is required to stretch the lungs and chest wall

Hi compliance means that the lungs and chest wall expand easily

85
Q

What are the two principal factors that are related to compliance?

A
  1. Elasticity
  2. surface tension
86
Q

Decreased compliance is a common feature in what pulmonary conditions?

A
  1. Scar lung tissue as seen in tuberculosis
  2. Cause lung tissue to become filled with fluid pulmonary edema
  3. Produce a deficiency in surfactant
  4. Impede lung expansion in anyway such as paralysis of the intercostal muscles
87
Q

Airway resistance

A

Depends on both the pressure differences and the resistance

airflow equals the pressure difference between the alveoli and the atmosphere divided by the resistance

88
Q

Eupnea

A

Normal pattern of quiet breathing

Can consist of shallow, deep or combined of shallow and deep breathing

89
Q

Costal breathing

A

A pattern of shallow breathing

consisting of an upward and outward movement of the chest due to the contraction of the external intercostal muscles

90
Q

Diaphragmatic breathing

A

A pattern of deep abdominal breathing

consisting of the outward movement of the abdomen due to the contraction and descent of the diaphragm

91
Q

The different amounts of air can be classified into what two types?

A
  1. Lung volumes which can be measured directly by use of a spirometer
  2. Lungs capacities with your combinations of different lung volumes
92
Q

Spirometer

A

The apparatus used to measure volumes and capacities of the lungs

inhalation is recorded as an upward deflection and exhalation is recorded as a downward deflection

93
Q

Spirogram

A

The record from the spirometer

94
Q

Tidal volume

A

The volume of one breath

95
Q

Anatomic (respiratory) dead space

A

The conducting airways with air that does not undergo respiratory exchange

Inhaled air here cannot be used in gas exchange

96
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

A

The additional inhaled air that is not used for gas exchange

97
Q

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

A

The extra air during forced exhalation you were able to exhale

98
Q

Forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV)

A

The volume of air that can be exhaled from the lungs in one second with maximal effort following a maximal inhalation

99
Q

Residual volume (RV)

A

Cannot be measured by spirometry

The volume left in the lungs even after the expiratory reserve volume is exhaled

100
Q

Minimal volume

A

The remaining air after the interplural pressure rises to equal the atmosphereic pressure and forces out some of the residual volume

This provides a medical illegal tool for determineing whether baby is born still born or died after birth, fetal lungs contain no air, so the lung of a stillborn baby will not float in water

101
Q

Lung capacity’s

A

The combinations of specific lung volumes

102
Q

Inspiratory capacity (IC)

A

The sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume

103
Q

Functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

Some of residual volume and expiratory reserve volume

104
Q

Vital capacity (VC)

A

Some of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume

105
Q

Total lung capacity (TLC)

A

The sum of vital capacity and residual volume

106
Q

Minute ventilation (V)

A

Determines the amount of air that flows into and out of the lungs each minute

totals tidal volume multiplied by respiratory rate

107
Q

Alveolar ventilation (VA)

A

Volume of air per minute that actually reaches the respiratory zone typically about 4200 mils per minute

108
Q

Dalton’s law

A

Each gas in a mixture of gases exerted on a pressure as if no other gases were present

109
Q

Partial pressure

A

The pressure of a specific gas in a mixture

110
Q

Henry’s law

A

States that the quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas and it’s solubility

111
Q

Decompression sickness (the bends)

A

When nitrogen comes out of a solution to quickly informs gas bubbles in the tissue

Can happen when a diver returns to the surface to quickly

Bubbles form in nervous tissue and can cause joint pain in the arms and legs, dizziness, shortness of breath, extreme fatigue, paralysis, and unconsciousness

112
Q

External respiration

A

Pulmonary gas exchange is the diffusion of O2 from air in the alveoli of the lungs to blood in pulmonary capillaries and the diffusion of CO2 in the opposite direction

Converts deoxygenated blood coming from the right side of the heart into oxygenated blood that returns to the left side of the heart

113
Q

Internal respiration or systemic gas exchange

A

As 02 leaves the bloodstream, oxygenated blood is converted into deoxygenated blood

unlike external respiration which occurs only in the lungs, internal respiration occurs in tissues throughout the body

114
Q

The rate of pulmonary and systemic gas exchange depends on what several factors?

A
  1. Partial pressure differences of the gases
  2. surface area available for gas exchange
  3. diffusion distance
  4. molecular weight and solubility of gases
115
Q

Common signs and symptoms of high altitude sickness?

A

Shortness of breath, headache, fatigue, insomnia, nausea, and dizziness - due to a lower level of oxygen in the blood

116
Q

What percentage of oxygen in the blood is bound to hemoglobin?

A

98.5%

117
Q

The relationship between hemoglobin and oxygen partial pressure

A

The factor that determines how much 02 binds to hemoglobin is the PO2 the higher the PO2, the more 02 can combine with hemoglobin

118
Q

Fully saturated hemoglobin

A

When reduced hemoglobin is completely converted to oxyhemoglobin

119
Q

Percent saturation of hemoglobin

A

The average saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen

120
Q

What are other factors that affect affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen?

A
  1. Acidity (pH) - As acidity increases the affinity of haemoglobin for O2 decreases, An02 disociates more readily from haemoglobin. increasing acidity enhances the unloading of oxygen from hemoglobin
  2. Partial pressure of carbon dioxide - Increased PCO2 produces more acidic environment which helps release 02 from hemoglobin
  3. Temperature - Increase temperature increases the amount of O2 released from hemoglobin
  4. BPG - A substance called 2, 3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) , Decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 which helps unload 02 from the hemoglobin
121
Q

Bohr effect

A

When the pH decreases the entire oxygen haemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to the right

at any given PO2, HB is less saturated with O2

An increase in hydrogen in blood causes 02 to unload from haemoglobin and the binding of 02 to hemoglobin causes the unloading of hydrogen from hemoglobin

122
Q

Oxygen affinity of fetal and adult hemoglobin

A

Fetal hemoglobin differs from adult hemoglobin in structure and in its affinity for O2 fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for O2 because it binds BPG less strongly

123
Q

What are the three main forms of how CO2 is transported in the blood?

A
  1. Dissolve CO2 - Smallest percentage of 7% is dissolved in the blood plasma when it reaches the lungs it diffuses into the alveolar air and is exhaled
  2. Carbamino compounds - 23% combines with amino group of amino acids and proteins in blood to form carbamino compounds most of the CO2 transported in this manner is bound to hemoglobin
  3. Bicarbonate ions - Greatest percentage of 70% is transported in blood plasma is bicarbonate is CO2 diffuses into systemic capillaries and enters red blood cells it reacts with water in the presence of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase to form carbonic acid
124
Q

Haldane effect

A

The lower the amount of oxyhemoglobin the higher the CO2 carrying capacity of the blood

125
Q

What are the two principal areas of the respiratory center?

A
  1. The medullary respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata
  2. The Pontine respiratory group in the pons
126
Q

Medullary respiratory centre

A

Made up of two collections of neurons called the dorsal respiratory group and the ventral respiratory group

127
Q

Ventral respiratory group

A

Contains a cluster of neurons called the prebotzinger complex that is believed to be important in the generation of the rhythm of breathing

128
Q

Pontine respiratory group

A

Collection of neurons in the pons plays a role in both inhalation and exhalation by modifying the basic rhythm of breathing generated by the VRG as when exercising, speaking, or sleeping

129
Q

Chemo receptor regulation of breathing

A

Certain chemical stimuli modulate how quickly and how deeply we breathe

Central chemoreceptors - Located near the medulla oblongata in the central nervous system response to changes in hydrogen concentration or PCO2 or both in cerebrospinal fluid

Peripheral chemoreceptors - Located in the aortic bodies clusters of chemo receptors located in the wall of the arch of the Orida and in the carotid bodies

130
Q

Hyperventilation

A

Rapid and deep breathing allows the inhalation of more 02 and exhalation of more CO2 until PCO2 and hydrogen are lowered to normal

BIOL 235 (28 decks)

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