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BIOL 235 > Chapter 16 > Flashcards

Chapter 16 Flashcards

1
Q

Sensation definition

A

Conscious or subconscious awareness of changes in the internal or external environment

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2
Q

Perception definition

A

Conscious interpretation of sensations and primarily functions from the cerebral cortex

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3
Q

Sensory modality definition

A

The unique type of sensation examples: touch, pain, vision, or hearing

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4
Q

What are the two classes of sensory modalities?

A
  1. General senses
  2. Special senses
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5
Q

What are the two general senses and what they do?

A
  1. Somatic senses: include tactile sensations, thermal sensation, pain sensations, and proprioceptive sensations
  2. Visceral senses: conditions within internal organs example: pressure, stretch, chemicals, nausea, hunger, and temperature
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6
Q

What is proprioceptive Sensation’s?

A

Allow perception of both the static (nonmoving) positions of limbs and body parts (joint and muscle position sense) and movements of the limbs and head

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7
Q

What are the special senses?

A

Sensory modalities of smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium or balance

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8
Q

Sensory receptor in terms of sensation?

A
  1. Either a specialized cell or dendrites of a sensory neuron
  2. Responds well to one particular stimulus
  3. Response weekly or not at all to other stimuli
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9
Q

Selectivity in sensory receptors?

A

When a receptor responds well to one particular stimuli and only weakly or not at all to other stimuli

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10
Q

What are the four events that need to occur for sensation to arise?

A
  1. Stimulation of the sensory receptor
  2. Transduction of the stimulus
  3. Generation of nerve impulses
  4. Integration of sensory input
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11
Q

What is transduction in a sensory receptor?

A

When a sensory receptor converts the energy in the stimulus into a graded potential

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12
Q

What are the three classes sensory receptors can be grouped into?

A
  1. Microscopic structures
  2. Location of the receptors and the origin of stimuli that activate them
  3. Type of stimulus detected
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13
Q

What are the three labels of microscopic structures in sensory receptors?

A
  1. Free nerve endings of first order sensory neurons
  2. Encapsulated nerve endings of first order sensory neurons
  3. Separate cells that synapse with first order sensory neurons
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14
Q

What are free nerve endings?

A

Bare (not encapsulated) dendrites that lack any structural specialization that can be seen under a light microscope

these are receptors for pain, temperature, tickle, itch, and some touch sensations

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15
Q

What are encapsulated nerve endings?

A

Dendrites are enclosed in a connective tissue capsule that has a distinctive microscopic structure these capsules enhance sensitivity or specificity of the receptor

examples: pressure, vibration, and some touch sensations

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16
Q

Separate cells?

A

Sensory receptors for special senses can be specialized separate cells that synapse with sensory neurons

including hair cells for hearing and equilibrium in the inner ear, gustatory receptors in taste buds, and photo receptors in the retina of the eye for vision

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17
Q

What is a receptor potential?

A

A graded potential generated by the sensory receptor responding to a stimulus

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18
Q

What are the three groups of sensory receptors based on location of the receptors and the origin of the stimuli that activate them?

A
  1. Exteroceptors: Located at or near the external surface sensitive to stimuli originating outside the body: hearing, vision, smell, taste, touch, pressure, vibration, temperature and pain
  2. Interoceptors or visceroceptors: Located in blood vessels, visceral organs, muscles, and nervous system. monitoring internal environment conditions not consciously perceived
  3. Proprioceptors: Located in muscles, tendons, joints, and the inner ear. provide information about body position, muscle length and tension, and the position and movement of your joints
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19
Q

What are the six groups of sensory receptors distinguished by the type of stimulus they detect?

A
  1. Mechanoceptors
  2. Thermoreceptors
  3. Nociceptors
  4. Photoreceptors
  5. Chemoreceptors
  6. Osmoreceptors
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20
Q

What is a characteristic of most sensory receptors?

A

Adaptation - where the receptor potential decreases in amplitude during a maintained constant stimulus

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21
Q

Somatic sensations?

A

Arise from stimulation of sensory receptors embedded in the skin or subcutaneous layer; in mucous membranes of the mouth, vagina, and anus; and skeletal muscles tendons and joints
The most somatic sensory receptors are found at the tip of the tongue, the lips, and the fingertips

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22
Q

What’s it called when somatic sensations arise from stimulating the skin surface?

A

Cutaneous sensations

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23
Q

What are the four modalities of somatic sensation?

A
  1. Tactile
  2. Thermal
  3. Pain
  4. Proprioceptive
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24
Q

What are the tactile sensation’s?

A

Touch, pressure, vibration, itch, and tickle

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25
Q

What mediate sensations of touch, pressure, and vibration?

A

Encapsulated Mechanoreceptors attached to large diameter myelinated A fibres mediate sensations of touch, pressure, and vibration

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26
Q

Which tactile sensations are detected by free nerve endings attached to small diameter, unmylenated C fibers?

A

Itch and tickle

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27
Q

What are the two types of rapidly detecting touch receptors?

A
  1. Corpuscles of touch - Located in the dermal papillae of hairless skin. generate nerve impulses at onset of touch. abundant in fingertips, hands, eyelids, tip of the tongue, lips, nipples, soles, clitoris, and tip of the penis
  2. Hair route plexuses - Found in hairy skin. detect movement on the skin surface the disturb hairs
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28
Q

What are the two types of slowly adapting touch receptors?

A
  1. Type one cutaneous Mechanoreceptors - Plentiful in fingertips, hands, lips, and external genitalia. respond to continuous touch such as holding an object
  2. Type two cutaneous mechanoreceptors - Highly sensitive to skin stretching
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29
Q

Pressure

A

Sustained sensation that is felt over a larger area than touch occurs with deeper deformation of the skin and subcutaneous layer
uses type one and type two mechano receptors

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30
Q

Vibration

A

Results from rapidly repetitive sensory signals from tactile receptors
Lamellated corpuscles and corpuscals of touch

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31
Q

Lamellated corpuscle

A

Consist of a nerve ending surrounded by a multilayered connective tissue capsule the resembles a sliced onion, adapt rapidly

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32
Q

Itch

A

Stimulation of free nerve endings by certain chemicals such as bradykinin, histamine, or antigens in mosquito saliva injected from a bite often because of local inflammatory response

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33
Q

Tickle

A

Free nerve endings are thought to mediate the tickle sensation this intriguing sensation typically arises only when someone else touches you

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34
Q

Thermal sensation

A

Free nerve endings that have receptive fields about 1 mm in diameter on the skin surface that detect cold and warmth

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35
Q

Cold receptors

A

Located in the stratum basal of the epidermis attach to medium diameter myelinated A fibres

temperatures between 10° and 35°C activate cold receptors

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36
Q

Warm receptors

A

Not as abundant is cold

Located in the dermis and are attached to small diameter unmyelinated C fibres

activated by temperatures between 30° and 45°C

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37
Q

Pain sensations

A

Protective function by signalling the presence of noxious tissue damaging conditions

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38
Q

Nociceptors

A

Receptors for pain free nerve endings found in every tissue of the body except the brain. intense thermal, mechanical, or chemical stimuli can activate them

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39
Q

What are the two types of pain?

A
  1. Fast pain
  2. Slow pain
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40
Q

Fast pain

A

Occurs very rapidly usually within .1 second after stimulus is applied also known as acute pain

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41
Q

Slow pain

A

Begins a second or more after a stimulus is applied then gradually increases in intensity over a period of several seconds or minutes also known as chronic, burning, aching, or throbbing pain

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42
Q

Superficial somatic pain

A

Arises from stimulation of receptors in the skin

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43
Q

Deep somatic pain

A

Arises from stimulation of receptors in skeletal muscles, joints, tendons, and Fascia

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44
Q

Visceral pain

A

Results from stimulation of nociceptors in visceral organs, if it involves large areas it can be quite severe

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45
Q

Weight discrimination

A

The ability to assess the weight of an object to help determine the muscular effort necessary to perform the task

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46
Q

Proprioceptive sensations

A

Allow us to recognize that parts of our body belong to us, to know where our head and limbs are located and how they are moving even when not looking at them

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47
Q

Kinesthesia

A

Perception of body movements

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48
Q

Proprioceptors

A

Receptors that give rise to proprioceptive sensations they are in bedded in muscles and tendons to inform us of the degree to which muscles are contracted the amount of tension on tendons and the position of joints, Provide information for maintaining balance and equilibrium and receive nerve impulses related to the position of different body parts in order to ensure coordination

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49
Q

Muscle spindles

A

Proprioceptor’s that monitor changes in the length of skeletal muscles and participate in stretch reflexes
Consist of several slowly adapting sensory nerve endings that wrap around 3 to 10 specialized muscle fibres

50
Q

Intrafusal fibers

A

Specialize muscle fibre

51
Q

Gamma motor neurons

A

Motor neurons in muscle spindles Terminate near both ends of the intra-fusil fibres and adjust the tension in a muscle spindle to variations in the length of the muscle

52
Q

Extrafusal muscle fibres

A

Ordinary skeletal muscle fibres that surround the spindles and are supplied by large diameter a fibres called Alpha motor neurons.

53
Q

Where are the cell bodies of both gamma and Alpha motor neurons located?

A

Anterior gray horn of the spinal cord

54
Q

Tendon organs

A

Slowly adapting receptors

located at the junction of a tendon and a muscle

by initiating tendon reflexes tendon organs protect tendons and their associated muscles from damage due to excessive tension

each tendon organ consists of a thin capsule of connective tissue that encloses a few tendon fascicles that are penetrated by sensory nerve endings

when tension is applied to a muscle the tendon organs generate nerve impulses that propagate into the CNS providing information about changes in muscle tension

55
Q

Joint kinaesthetic receptors

A

Free nerve endings and type two cutaneous Mechanoreceptors in the capsules of joints respond to pressure

Small lamellated corpuscles in the connective tissue outside articular capsule respond to acceleration and deceleration of joints during movement

Joint ligaments containing receptors similar to tendon organs that adjust reflex inhibition of the Adjacent muscles when excessive strain is placed on the joint

56
Q

Somatic sensory ( somatosensory) pathways

A

Relay information from somatic sensory receptors to the primary somatosensory area in the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex and to the cerebellum

57
Q

What are the three neurons in the somatic sensory pathway?

A
  1. First order neuron
  2. Second order neuron
  3. Third order neuron
58
Q

First-order (primary) neuron

A

Sensory neurons that conduct impulses from somatic sensory receptors into the brainstem or spinal cord

from the face, nasal cavity, oral cavity, teeth and eyes propagate along the cranial nerves in the brainstem
from the neck, trunk, limbs, and posterior aspect of the head Somatic sensory impulses propagate along spinal nerves into the spinal cord

59
Q

Second-order (secondary) neurons

A

Conduct impulses from the brain stem or spinal cord to the thalamus these axons decussate (cross over to the opposite side) as they course through the brain stem or spinal cord before sending to the thalamus

60
Q

Third order (tertiary) neurons

A

Conduct impulses from the thalamus to the primary somatosensory area on the same side as the impulses reach the primary somatosensory area perception of the sensation occurs

61
Q

Relay station

A

Regions within the central nervous system where neuronsenops with other neurons that are part of a particular sensory or motor pathway

62
Q

What are the three somatic sensory pathways that impulses ascend to the cerebral cortex?

A
  1. Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway
  2. Anterolateral (spinothalamic) pathway
  3. Trigeminothalamic pathway
63
Q

Posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway

A

Nerve impulses for touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception, from the limbs trunk neck and posterior head ascend to the cerebral cortex along this pathway

First order neurons are in the posterior column medial lemniscus pathway

64
Q

Anterolateral (spinothalamic) pathway

A

Nerve impulses for pain, temperature, itch, and tickle from the limbs trunk neck and posterior head ascend to the cerebral cortex along this pathway

65
Q

What does the somatic sensory map and the somatic motor map do?

A

Relate body parts to these cortical areas

66
Q

Trigeminothalamic pathway to cerebral cortex

A

Nerve impulses for most somatic sensations (tactile, thermal, pain) from the face, nasal cavity, oral cavity, and teeth ascend the cerebral cortex along the Trigeminothalamic pathway

67
Q

Primary somatosensory area

A

Occupies the postcentral gyri of the parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex

receives sensory input from different parts of the body and maps the destination of somatic sensory signals from different parts of the left side of the body in the somatosensory area of the right cerebral hemisphere

the left cerebral hemisphere does a similar thing

68
Q

Sensory homunculus

A

The distorted somatic sensory map of the body

the size of the cortical region that represents a body part may expand or shrink depending on the quantity of sensory impulses received from that body part

69
Q

What are the major routes that the proprioceptive impulses take to reach the cerebellum?

A
  1. Anterior spinocerebellar tract
  2. Posterior spinocerebellar tract
70
Q

Lower motor neurons

A

All excitatory and inhibitory signals that control movement converge on the motor neurons that extend out of the brainstem and spinal cord to innervate skeletal muscles in the body

71
Q

Local circuit neurons

A

Located close to lower motor neuron cell bodies in brainstem and spinal cord
coordinate rhythmic activity in specific muscle groups

72
Q

Upper motor neuron

A

An interneuron and not a true motor neuron it is so named because the cell originate in the upper part of the central nervous system regulates activity of lower motor neurons

73
Q

Basal nuclei neurons

A

Initiate and terminate movements, suppress unwanted movements, and establish normal level of muscle tone

74
Q

Cerebellar neurons

A

Monitors differences between intended movements and movements actually performed
then it issues commands to upper motor neurons to reduce errors in movement thus coordinating body movements and
helping maintain normal posture and balance

75
Q

Premotor Area of the cerebral cortex

A

Is where a motor plan is developed identifying which muscles should contract how much they need to contract and in what order and then transmitted to the primary motor area for execution

76
Q

Primary motor area of the cerebral cortex

A

The major control region for the execution of voluntary movement electrical stimulation of any point in the primary motor area causes contraction of a specific muscle on the opposite side of the body this area controls muscles by forming descending pathways that extend the spinal cord and brain stem

77
Q

Direct motor pathways

A

Provide input to lower motor neuron sphere axons that extend directly from the cerebral cortex

Also called Pyramidal pathways

Consist of Axons that descend from the Pyramidal cells of the primary motor area and premotor area

Consist of corticospinal pathways in corticobulbar pathway is

78
Q

Indirect motor pathways

A

Provide input to lower motor neurons from motor centres in the brain stem

79
Q

Pyramidal cells

A

Upper motor neurons that have pyramid shaped cell bodies they are the main output cells of the cerebral cortex

80
Q

Corticospinal pathways

A

Conduct impulses for the control of muscles of the limbs and trunk

81
Q

What is the lateral corticospinal tract function?

A

Precise agile and highly skilled movements of hands and feet

82
Q

What is the function of the anterior corticospinal tract?

A

Controls movement of trunk and proximal part of the limbs

83
Q

What’s the function of the corticobulbar pathway?

A

Controls precise voluntary movements of the eyes, tongue, and neck, plus chewing, facial expressions, speech, and swallowing

84
Q

What are the four major motor centres that help regulate body movement in the brainstem?

A
  1. Vestibular nuclei in the medulla and pons
  2. Reticular formation located throughout the brain stem
  3. Superior colliculus in the midbrain
  4. Red nucleus also present in the midbrain
85
Q

Indirect motor pathways

A

Extrapyramidal pathways

Include all somatic motor tracks other than the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracks

Located in brainstem

  1. Rubrospinal tract
  2. Tectospinal tract
  3. Vestibulospinal tract
  4. Lateral reticulospinal tract
  5. Medial reticulospinal tract
86
Q

What is the function of the indirect motor pathways of the brainstem?

A

Cause involuntary movements that regulate posture, balance, muscle tone, and reflexive movements of the head and trunk other than the rubrospinal tract which plays an ancillary role to the lateral corticospinal tract in the regulation of voluntary movements of the upper limbs

87
Q

What are the three sources of input for postural reflexes?

A
  1. The eyes; which provide visual information about the position of the body in space
  2. The vestibular apparatus of the inner ear; which provides information about the position of the head
  3. Proprioceptors in muscles and joints; which provide information about the position of the limbs
88
Q

What is the function of the reticular formation?

A

Helps control posture and alters muscle tone
receives input from eyes, ears, cerebellum, and basal nuclei

89
Q

What’s the function of the Tectospinal track?

A

Allows the body to turn in the direction of a sudden visual or auditory stimulus; protecting from potentially dangerous stimuli

90
Q

Saccades

A

Small rapid jerking movements of the eyes that occur as a person looks at different points in the visual field

91
Q

Red nucleus

A

Receives input from the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum

generates action potentials along the rubrospinal tract

which activate skeletal muscles that cause fine, precise, voluntary, movements of the distal parts of the upper limbs

92
Q

What are the functions of the basal nuclei?

A
  1. Initiation of movement
  2. Suppression of unwanted movements
  3. Regulation of muscle tone
  4. Regulation of nonmotor processes
93
Q

What are the four activities of cerebellar function?

A
  1. Monitoring intentions for movement
  2. Monitoring actual movement
  3. Comparing command signals with sensory information
  4. Sending out corrective feedback
94
Q

Integration

A

Function of the cerebrum

The processing of sensory information by analyzing and storing it and making decisions for various responses

95
Q

What are the integrative functions?

A
  1. Sleep and wakefulness
  2. Learning and memory
  3. Language
96
Q

During REM sleep does blood pressure respiratory and heart rate increase or decrease?

A

Increase

97
Q

During NREM sleep does respiratory, heart rate, and blood pressure increase or decrease?

A

Decrease

98
Q

Does most dreaming occur in REM sleep or NREM sleep?

A

REM

99
Q

Where is the NREM sleep centres located?

A

In the hypothalamus and basal forebrain

100
Q

Where is the REM sleep centre located?

A

Ponds and mid brain

101
Q

What are the proposed functions of sleep?

A
  1. Restoration; providing time for the body to repair it self
  2. Consolidation of memories
  3. Enhancement of immune system function
  4. Maturation of the brain
102
Q

Coma definition

A

A state of unconsciousness in which an individual has little or no response to stimuli

103
Q

Causes of comas

A

Head injuries, damages to the reticular activating system, brain infection, alcohol intoxication, and drug overdoses

104
Q

Persistent vegetative state

A

Patient has normal sleep wake cycles but does not have an awareness of the surroundings
can smile, laugh, or cry but do not understand the meaning of these actions
EEG still exhibit waveform activity

105
Q

Learning

A

The ability to acquire new information or skills through instruction or experience
two main categories being associative learning and non-associative learning

106
Q

Associative learning

A

Occurs when a connection is made between two stimuli

107
Q

Non-associative learning

A

Occurs when repeated exposure to a single stimulus causes a change in behaviour

108
Q

Habituation

A

Repeated exposure to an irrelevant stimulus causes a decreased behavioural response

109
Q

Sensitization

A

Repeated exposure to a noxious stimulus causes an increase behavioural response

110
Q

Memory

A

The process by which information acquired through learning is stored and retrieved

111
Q

Declarative (explicit) memory

A

Is the memory of experiences that can be verbalized such as facts, events, objects, names, and places
requires conscious recall and is stored in the association areas of the cerebral cortex

112
Q

Procedural (implicit) memory

A

The memory of motor skills procedures and rules
does not require conscious recall and it is stored in the basal nuclei, cerebellum, and Premotor area

113
Q

Short term memory

A

The temporary ability to recall a few pieces of information for seconds to minutes

114
Q

Long-term memory

A

Last from days to years

115
Q

Memory consolidation

A

The process by which a short term memory is transformed into a long-term memory
a major role is played by the hippocampus

116
Q

Plasticity

A

For an experience to become part of a long-term memory it must produce persistent structural and functional changes that represent the experience in the brain

it involves changes of individual neurons as well as changes in the strengths of synaptic connections among neurons

117
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

Underlies some aspects of memory transmission at some synapses within the hippocampus is enhanced for hours or weeks after a brief period of high frequency stimulation

118
Q

Language

A

A system of vocal sounds and symbols that conveys information most commonly it is spoken and or written

119
Q

What are the two language areas of the cerebral cortex?

A

Wernick’s area and Brocas area

120
Q

Wernick’s area

A

An association area found in the temporal lobe interprets the meaning of written or spoken words

translate words into thoughts

121
Q

Brocas area

A

A motor area located in the frontal lobe is active as you translate thoughts into speech

Brocas area receives input from Wernicks area and then generates a motor pattern for activation of muscles needed for the words that you want to say

122
Q

What are the neural pathways used when you see or hear a particular word and then say that word?

A
  1. Information about the word is conveyed to the Wernick’s area
  2. Wernicks’s area translates the written or spoken word into the appropriate thought
  3. To speak the word Wernick’s area transmits information about the word to Brocas area
  4. Brocas area receives input and then develops a motor pattern for activation of the muscles needed to say the word
  5. Motor pattern is conveyed from Brokas area to the primary motor area which subsequently activates the appropriate muscles of speech, contraction of the speech muscles allows the word to be spoken

BIOL 235 (28 decks)

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